Pollination

The abbreviation spp. means sometiiing tiiat applies to many species witiiin a genus. 

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The most important considerations in marketing and estabUshing a crop from a new source are constancy of supply and quahty. Eor some spices, it is difficult to reduce labor costs, as some crops demand individual manual treatment even if grown on dedicated plantations. Only the individual stigmas of the saffron flower must be picked cinnamon bark must be cut, peeled, and roUed in strips mature unopened clove buds must be picked by hand and orchid blossoms must be hand pollinated to produce the vanilla bean. 

Vanilla. Vanilla is the dried, cured, fuU-sized, but not fully ripe fmit pods (beans) of Vanillaplanifolia And. and V. tahitensis J. W. Moore (Orchidaceae). The vine is native to the tropical rain forests of southern Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and northern South America. Plantings were started in Madagascar, Reunion, Java, Mauritius, and Zanzibar in 1840. The Madagascar-type bean is stUl the most important, but Indonesia produces more than Malagasy. The stmcture of the flower prevents self-pollination and therefore, where insects are not prevalent, hand pollination is necessary. 

A Phenylthalamic Acid. A product of Hungary, A/-phenylthalamic acid [4727-29-1] (Nevirol) (43), is a ben2oic acid derivative not sold in the United States. It is used to increase pollination and results in setting more fmit when weather conditions are unfavorable for normal ferti1i2ation. It is employed in both greenhouses and fields on apples, beans, cherries, lupine, peas, peppers, soybeans, and sunflower (23). 

The proper choice and appHcation of an insecticide for pest control are predicated upon factors, eg, the life history and ecology of the pest, the relation of pest population to economic damage, the effect of the insecticide on the pest or its plant or animal host, related organisms in the ecosystem, and proper timing of the appHcation to prevent illegal residues at harvest and to avoid damaging of bees and other pollinating insects. 

The function of the essential oil in the plant is not fully understood. Microscopic examination of plant parts that contain the oil sacs readily shows their presence. The odors of flowers are said to act as attractants for insects involved in pollination and thus may aid in preservation and natural selection. Essential oils are almost always bacteriostats and often bacteriocides. Many components of essential oils are chemically active and thus could participate readily in metaboHc reactions. They are sources of plant metaboHc energy, although some chemists have referred to them as waste products of plant metaboHsm. Exudates, which contain essential oils, eg, balsams and resins, act as protective seals against disease or parasites, prevent loss of sap, and are formed readily when the tree tmnks are damaged. 

Although the honey bee s sting is unpleasant, this tiny creature is crucial to the world s agricultural economy. Honey bees produce more than jjilOO million worth of honey each year, and, more importantly, the pollination of numerous plants by honey bees is responsible for the production of i20 billion worth of crops in the United States alone. 

Kreuz, n. cross loins rump. -beeren,/.pi. Kreuzdornbeeren. -bcfruchtung, /. crossfertilization. -bein, n. sacrum, -bestau-bung, /. cross-pollination, -blume, /. milkwort (Polygala), -bliitler, m. (Bot.) crucifer, -dorn, m. buckthorn (Rhamnus). -dom-beeren, /.pi. buckthorn berries, Persian berries. 

Selbstandigkeit, /. Independence, self-reliance. Selbst-ansteckung, /. self-infection, -befruch-tung, /. self-fertilization, -beherrschtmg, /. self-control, -bestaubuog, /. (Bot.) self pollination. 

The bright colors of flowers and the varied hues of autumn leaves have always been a cause for delight, but it was nor until the twentieth century that chemists understood how these colors arise from the presence of organic compounds with common structural features. They discovered how small differences in the structures of the molecules of these compounds can enhance photosynthesis, produce important vitamins, and attract pollinating bees. They now know how the shapes of molecules and the orbitals occupied by their electrons explain the properties of these compounds and even the processes taking place in our eyes that allow us to see them. 

As pesticides are applied, large numbers of honey bees and wild bees are poisoned resulting in not only a diminished honey crop, but perhaps more important, reduced crop pollination that is vital to agricultural production (51). The estimated yearly cost of reduced pollination and reduced honey production is about 230 million (Pimentel, D., in manuscript). 

Cenozoic Tertiary 66 Myr Climate Cools. Continents nearing modern positions. Drying trend in middle of period. Radiation of birds, mammals, flowering plants, pollinating insects... 

Dodson, C. H. 1970. The role of chemical attractants in orchid pollination. Pages 83-107 in K. L. Chambers (ed.) Biochemical Coevolution. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis. Downie, S. R. 1988. Morphological, cytological, and flavonoid vaiiabihty of the Arnica angusti-folia aggregate (Asteraceae). Can. J. Bot. 64 24-39. 

In the natural world, carotenoid oxidation products are important mediators presenting different properties. Volatile carotenoid-derived compounds such as noriso-prenoids are well known for their aroma properties. Examples include the cyclic norisoprenoid P-ionone and the non-cyclic pseudoionone or Neral. Carotenoid oxidation products are also important bioactive mediators for plant development, the best-known example being abscisic acid. Apo-carotenoids act as visual and volatile signals to attract pollination and seed dispersal agents in the same way as carotenoids do, but they are also plant defense factors and signaling molecules for the regulation of plant architecture. 

Sussman R. and Raven P. (1978). Pollination by lemurs and marsupials an archaic coevolutionary system. Science 200, 731-736. 

The widespread use of economic poisons has a definite impact on the animal complex on the face of the earth which provides our sustenance. Already we have seen the use of DDT for codling moth control on apples result in a relatively minor pest becoming a serious threat. The same material used as a wonder spray for fly control now fails, after a couple years of common usage, with the appearance of new, resistant strains of flies. Bees and other pollinating insects as well as helpful predators or parasites may be decimated and their important aid be lost by untimely or improper use of most of the newer insecticides. 

One of the best illustrations of high specificity is di(4-chlorophenoxy) methane (Neo-tran), which has been used for some time commercially in the field, principally for the control of the citrus red mite. So far there has been no indication of undesirable effect upon pollinating insects or on desirable predators or parasites. 

Elder stems with their pith removed make a nesting site for solitary bees. This is helpful near fields of alfalfa, where the presence of bees aids plant pollination. Elder s summer flowers provide an important source of nectar for many insects. Swallow-tailed... 

The flowers are small, about 1/5 of an inch long with five lobed corollas with five stamens and short filaments. The flowers are fragrant and form a flat-topped cluster (known as a corymbose cyme) with stalks of different lengths all growing to the same level. They bloom from the center outward. The flowers are often pollinated by flies and other insects. The purplish black berries, which ripen in September in the Northern Hemisphere, contain ovate greenish brown seeds. The berries are actually black, but have a powdery blush on them which makes them appear blue. There are often three seeds in each berry. Red berries, which should not be eaten, have too high a saponin content which even keeps animals from consuming them. Plants can usually reproduce by the time they are three to five years old. 

More than 20% of insects are pollinators. Bees alone pollinate more than 50 agricultural crops [111]. When fully pollinated, fruit and berry plants grow 30-40% more, and melons and squash twice as much, or more. Bees increase harvest size 3-4 times in feed grass like alfalfa, red clover, and vetch [111]. However, the number of bees and other plant pollinators sharply and universally decreased in regions of the USSR where chemicals were used in agriculture in the middle of the 1980s. Because of this decrease, harvest size of some plants has noticeably decreased (for example, buckwheat and melons). 

The two types of wood differ, however, in their nature and structure. The main structural characteristic of the hardwoods (which are botanically known as angiosperms, plants that flower to pollinate for seed reproduction) is that in their trunks or branches, the volume of wood taken up by dead cells, varies greatly, although it makes up an average of about 50% of the total volume. In softwoods (from the botanical group gymnosperms, which do not have flowers but use cones for seed reproduction) the dead cells are much more elongated and fibrous than in hardwoods, and the volume taken up by dead cells may represent over 90% of the total volume of the wood. 

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