Pollination mutualism

Repeated independent evolution of obligate pollination mutualism in the PhyUantheae-Epicephala association. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276, 417-426. 

HOS 10] Hossaert-McKey M., Soler C., Schatz B. et al., Floral scents their role in nurseiy pollination mutualism , Chemoecology, vol. 20, pp. 75-88,2010. 

Fatty acids and various esters are also involved in mutual-istic relationships between certain types of bees and several plant species (123). These compounds serve as food reserve for the pollinating species. For example, several species of Krameria... 

Schemske, D. W. and Horvitz, . C. (1984). Variation among floral visitors in pollination ability a precondition for mutualism specialization. Science 225 519-521.

Nursery pollination systems are examples of reciprocal mutualism between pollinators and plants, in which the female pollinators oviposit on the ovaries of plants and the hatched larvae feed on pollinated fruits and seeds. At least 13 nursery pollination systems have been identified.88 Floral volatiles significantly contribute to attracting... 

Fig-fig wasp interactions are an example of highly specialized and diversified mutualism. Approximately 900 species of Ficus (Moraceae), when receptive, release floral scents that attract specific wasps (Agaonidae) for pollination. The chemical compositions of the floral scents differ considerably among different Ficus species, and several volatiles such as ( )-/3-ocimene, ct-pinene, linalool, trcrns-linalool oxide furanoside (21), 1,8-cineol, f-carvoph vllcnc, germacrene D, a-copaene, and benzyl alcohol have been identified as the dominant components of these scents.89 Such differences in composition of the floral scents of figs induce species specificity in the attraction of fig wasps.90 In addition, in fig flowers, the scent composition differs between the receptive and... 

Mutualism is an obligatory relationship between two populations that benefits both. A mutualis-tic relationship requires close physical proximity it is highly specific, as one member cannot be replaced by another related species. A typical example is that of flowers and insects. Insects benefit by obtaining nectar from the flowers, and the plants benefit by being pollinated in the process. In some cases, the mutualistic relationship has become so close that the species involved are no longer... 

Mutualistic species interactions contribute directly to many essential ecosystem processes, such as nutrient inputs through nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizal associations that govern phosphorus and organic nitrogen uptake by plants (Read, 1991). Other mutualisms, such as pollination and seed dispersal, have indirect effects, influencing the presence or absence of species that may have strong ecosystem effects. 

Co-evolution—This is the intrinsically linked evolution of two or more species, as a result of a close ecological relationship such as pollination, predation, herbivory, or mutualism. 

In order to study what mutual effect the mechanism of the formation of two alkaloids in two different species would have on each other, a number of hybrids were prepared by cross-pollination between species belonging to each of the groups mentioned and the alkaloid content of the leaves of the hybrids of the Fi generations was then determined (279). The results obtained are given in Table 5. 

In general, pollinators visit one or a limited number of species at one time. Such fidelity is guaranteed by the plant s morphology, odor, and color. Olfactory cues will be discussed later under terpenes (Chapter 19). Many plants are pollinated only by one vector and are characteristically known as bee flowers or butterfly flowers or hummingbird flowers. This mutual coadaptation has many benefits for both the plant and the animal. 

Secondary plant products play an outstanding role in the mutual connections between plant and animals, e.g., in predation, pollination and dispersal of plant seeds. They are involved, however, also in special relations, like coniine (D 3.3.1), which is released by the pitcher traps of the carnivorous plant Sarracenia flava and on the one hand entices insects into the trap and on the other hand paralyzes them so that they are more easily digested. 

---