Other Brain Regions

The medial thalamic neurons receive the projection arising from the spinal dorsal horn through the spino-thalamic tract and then project to cortical structures, including the ACC. Wang et al. (2007) used a CPA paradigm to examine the 

The conditioned place paradigm has been successfully used to reveal the neural substrate and neurotransmitters involved in the affective component of pain. Because persistent pain is frequendy associated with psychological and emotional dysfunction (McWilliams et al, 2003), studies of the neural circuits and the molecular mechanisms involved in the affective component of pain may have considerable clinical importance for the treatment of chronic pain. 

Becerra, L., Breiter, H. C., Wise, R., Gonzalez, R. G., and Borsook, D. (2001). Reward circuitry activation by noxious thermal stimuli. Neuron 32, 927—946. 

Bernard, J. F., and Besson, J. M. (1990). The spino(trigemino)pontoamygdaloid pathway Electrophysiological evidence for an involvement in pain processes. J. Neurophysiol 63, 473-490. 

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Other brain regions Effects on cognitive, locomotor, sensory and autonomic functions, analgesic effects... 

Ryabinin AE, Criado JR, Henriksen SJ, et al Differential sensitivity of c-Fos expression in hippocampus and other brain regions to moderate and low doses of alcohol. Mol Psychiatry 2 32 3, 1997... 

As might be expected, mRNA for the 5-HT transporter is found in high concentrations in the Raphe nuclei but it is also found in other brain regions. Whether this means that non-5-HT neurons can synthesise this protein is unknown but there is some evidence that it is synthesised in astrocytes, at least. One complication is that there are multiple forms of mRNA for the 5-HT transporter, but there is, as yet, no evidence for transporter subtypes in the CNS. However, it must also be remembered that 5-HT transporters are found in the peripheral tissues, notably platelets, mast cells, the placental brush-border and adrenal chromaffin cells and it is possible that these are not all identical. 

Narcolepsy, a sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy, may be caused by the lack of hypocretin mRNA and peptides in humans (Peyron et al., 2000) or a disruption of the hypocretin receptor 2 or its ligand in dogs and mice (Lin et al., 1999 Chemelli et al., 1999). Hypocretin-containing neurons are located exclusively in the dorsomedial, lateral, and perifornical hypothalamic areas (Peyron et al., 1998). Two hypocretin sequences, Hcrt-1 (orexin-A) and Hcrt-2 (orexin-B), are generated from a single preprohypocretin (De Lecea et al., 1998 Peyron et al, 1998 Sakurai et al, 1998). Axons from these neurons are found in the hypothalamus, locus coeruleus (LC), raphe nuclei, tuberomamillary nucleus, midline thalamus, all levels of spinal cord, sympathetic and parasympathetic centers, and many other brain regions... 

The FGFs stimulate the proliferation of mesodermally and ectodermally-derived cells and play central roles in mammalian development. Members of the FGF family are expressed in the embryonic period and are required for several critical events in neural development and specifically for neural induction. FGF-8 is necessary for positional identity required for axial specification and patterning of limb development. FGF-2 stimulates the proliferation of multipotential stem cells that subsequently give rise to neurons of the cortex and other brain regions. 

COXs thus catalyze the same first committed step of the AA cascade (Fig. 33-2). COX-2, however, is expressed in response to mitogenic and inflammatory stimuli and encoded by an early-response gene. To date we do not understand how COX-3 expression is regulated. In contrast, COX-1 expression is not subject to short-term regulation. Neurons in the hippocampus, as well as in a few other brain regions, are unlike other cells in that they display basal COX-2 expression [36]. This expression is modulated by synaptic activity, such as long-term potentiation, and involves the NMDA glutamate receptors [36,40]. 

Estradiol. The first neuroactive steroid receptor type to be recognized was that for estradiol [3]. In vivo uptake of [3H] estradiol, and binding to cell nuclei isolated from hypothalamus, pituitary and other brain regions, revealed steroid specificity closely resembling that of the uterus, where steroid receptors were first discovered [3]. Cytosolic estrogen receptors isolated from pituitary and brain tissue closely resemble those found in uterus and mammary tissue. A hallmark of the estrogen receptor is its existence... 

Mice exposed for 28 days to phenol in drinking water exhibited a significant reduction in dopamine level in the corpus striatum at the 1.8 mg/kg/day dose, and significantly decreased levels of norepinephrine, serotonin, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in the hypothalamus at the 6.2 mg/kg/day dose (Hsieh et al. 1992). Levels of neurotransmitters in other brain regions were also significantly altered at higher doses of phenol. 

A global view of consciousness is that it is generated throughout the entire brain, as a result of synchronisation of relevant neural networks. Specific systems or regions—for example the cerebral cortex, brainstem reticular formation and thalamic nuclei—may be key anatomical integrators. Areas with the most widespread interconnections are pivotal, and on this basis the cortex and thalamus are more relevant than cerebellum and striatum for example. Frontal cortex for example connects with every other brain region, both in terms of input and output, with 80% of such connections accounted for by cortico-cortical connections. Thalamic intralaminar nuclei are, in conjunction with the reticular nucleus, reciprocally connected to all cortical areas. By contrast the cerebellum has very few output pathways and striatal-cortical input is (via the thalamus) confined to frontal lobe. 

Schibler Did you look at the eye rhythms They could feed on other brain regions. 

The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is the major source of OT input to other brain regions, and oxytocinergic neurons projecting to the VTA are located in the PVN (Numan 1994). Lesioning the PVN disrupts the postpartum initiation of maternal behavior (Insel and Har-baugh, 1989), but does not result in any defect in ma-... 

Other brain regions are undoubtedly involved in affi-liative behaviors. For example, the ventral temporal area of the cortex appears to be involved in facial discrimination in humans, and abnormalities in the activation of this area during facial discrimination tasks are present in individuals with autism (Schultz et ah, 2000). In rats and other mammals, the olfactory bulb and entorhinal cortex also appear to be involved in affiliative behaviors, including maternal behaviors (Numan, 1994). 

Stack, E.C. and Numan, M. (2000) The tempotal course of expression of c-Fos and Fos B within the medial pteoptic area and other brain regions of postpartum female tats during prolonged mother-young interactions. Behav Neurosci 14 609-622. 

Benzodiazepines also act on two other brain regions that we have discussed in relation to anxiety. One of these areas is the lateral septum. The septum, as you will recall, is involved in the expression of aggressive behavior. Curiously, benzodiazepines infused into the lateral part of the septum decrease electric probe burying but do not interfere with... 

The other brain region involved in benzodiazepine effects on anxiety is the central gray region. Benzodiazepines injected into the central gray have been shown to reduce anxiety in the elevated plus maze. 

Alcohol is interesting in that its potentiating effects seem to be brain region specific, that is, GABA receptors in the cerebellum, cortex, and spinal cord seem to be more sensitive to alcohol than those in other brain regions. Expression studies have also shown that a specific form of yj subunit appears to be crucial [see below). 

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