Limb development

LRP4 is another receptor of the LDL receptor gene family involved in regulation of embryonic patterning, mainly controlling formation of limb structures. Loss of receptor activity in gene targeted mice or spontaneous mutation in bovine cause abnormal limb development and... 

Dolle, P., Price, M., and Duboule, D. (1992). Expression of the murine Dlx-1 homeobox gene during facial, ocular and limb development. Differentiation 49 93-99. 

The best examples of pleiotropy have been provided by developmental biologists. Two examples illustrate the pleiotropic action of developmental genes. Sonic hedgehog participates in the formation of the different cell types that form the neural tube, in limb development and in somitogenesis, a process by which mesodermic cells aggregate to form bones and muscles. 

Most warn of the increased risk of deformities of limb development and defects like cleft palate. A few drugs carry the risk of distinct organ defects. For example, chlorambucil may cause agenesis of the fetal kidneys Penicillamine seems to affect fetal connective tissue, causing relaxation of the skin, hypotonia, and hyper flexion of the hips and shoulders... 

The FGFs stimulate the proliferation of mesodermally and ectodermally-derived cells and play central roles in mammalian development. Members of the FGF family are expressed in the embryonic period and are required for several critical events in neural development and specifically for neural induction. FGF-8 is necessary for positional identity required for axial specification and patterning of limb development. FGF-2 stimulates the proliferation of multipotential stem cells that subsequently give rise to neurons of the cortex and other brain regions. 

Prater, M.R. et al., Maternal treatment with a high dose of CpG ODN during gestation alters fetal craniofacial and distal limb development in C57BL/6 mice, Vaccine, 24, 263, 2006. 

The man was engaged for two and a half years in the preparation of hypophosphites his illness commenced with spots before the eyes, and inability to fix the attention. His teeth became very brittle, and pieces broke from healthy as well as diseased teeth from very slight causes. Finally, a weakness of the arms and limbs developed in the course of nine months into complete locomotor ataxy. 

Limb patterning is important with respect to how the precise arrangement of structures is generated within the limb but the pattern of limb initiation is also central to the body plan (reviewed Cohn and Tickle, 1996). What ensures that limbs develop in the proper positions and that the type of limb is appropriate to that position ... 

Brook, W.J., Diaz-Benjumea, F.J., Cohen, S.M. (1996). Organizing spatial pattern in limb development. Ann. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 12,161-180. 

Cohn, M., Izpisua-Belmonte, J.C., Abud, H., Heath, J., Tickle, C. (1995). Fibroblast growth factors induce additional limb development from the flank of chick embryos. Cell 80,739-746. 

Marigo, V., Johnson, R.L., Vortkamp, A., Tabin, C. (1996). Sonic hedgehog differentially regulates expression of GLI and GL13 during limb development. Dev. Biol. 180(1), 273-283. 

Tabin, C.J. (1992). Why we have (only) five fingers per hand hox genes and the evolution of paired limbs. Development 116(2), 289-296. 

Tickle, C. (1995). Vertebrate limb development. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 5,478-484. 

Tickle, C. (1996). Genetics and limb development. Developmental Genetics 19(1), 1-8. 

In mammals, the first report of induction of congenital malformations attributed to extrinsic factors is a single observation in 1921. This report linked a dietary deficiency of a fat soluble factor with rudimentary limb development in pigs, subsequently determined to be vitamin A. It was not until 1929 that X-rays were shown to affect embryonic development. 

Flales BF, Jain R. 1985. Differential effects of reactive metabolites of cyclophosphamide (CPA) on limb development. Teratology 31 28A. 

An unsaturated derivative of retinoic acid, 3,4-didehydroretinoic acid (Fig. 7.10), has been demonstrated by Eichele and Thaller to be an important signaling molecule in a model system of limb development, the chick limb bud assay (42). 3,4-Didehydroretinoic acid is derived from 3,4-didehydroretinol, which is... 

Johnson, P.T.J., K.B. Lunde, E.G. Ritchie, and A.E. Launer. 1999. The effect of trema-tode infection on amphibian limb development and survivorship. Science 284 802-804. 

Mercader, N., Leonardo, E., Piedra, M.E., Martinez, A.C., Ros, M.A., Torres, M. 2000. Opposing RA and FGF signals control proximodistal vertebrate limb development through regulation of Meis genes. Development 127, 3961-3970. 

Vachon, G., Cohen, B., Pfeifle, C., McGuffin, M.E., Botas, J., Cohen, S.M. 1992. Homeotic genes of the bithorax complex repress limb development in the abdomen of the Drosophila embryo through the target gene distal-less. Cell 71, 437 450. 

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