Nuclear applications environmental monitoring

The nuclear area is one that has been heavily dependent upon isotope ratio mass spectrometry performed by thermal ionization. Applications in this area are among the major reasons for the continued push to analyze smaller and smaller samples. There are two primary reasons for this (1) maximum practicable reduction of the hazards associated with radioactivity and (2) presence of often only a very small amount of the target element available. Areas addressed include evaluation of uranium enrichment processes [86], isotopic analysis of transuranium elements (all elements through einsteinium have been analyzed) [87], and environmental monitoring for release of uranium and other actinides [88,89]. This last area has received renewed emphasis in the wake of the Gulf War [90]. 

Environmental monitoring of nuclear contamination, including the determination of the concentration and isotope ratios of long-lived radionuchdes, such as uranium, plutonium isotopes, thorium, Np, Se, Sr, I and others, at trace and ultratrace levels, is a fast growing and fascinating application field for inorganic mass spectrometry." " Among the environmentally important radionuclides, I, Sr, uranium and transuranium elements are of special importance. For example, the natural I inventory in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere has been estimated to be about 263 kg. ... 

Besides the analysis of nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste materials, the determination of contamination and enrichment of selected radioactive nuclides, e.g., which is one of the most important environmental indicators of nuclear accidents, Se, Tc, Np, Pu, °Pu and "Am at ultratrace concentration levels, is useful for environmental monitoring of fallout from nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power plants or nuclear accidents. ". Selected application fields for the determination of natural and artificial long-lived radionuclides (LLR) and radionuclides investigated by mass spectrometric techniques are summarized in Tables 9.36 and 9.37, respectively. 

Recent developments are related to both batch and continuous processes, including environmental monitoring (see Chapter 18). Applications in relatively inaccessible zones such as explosive, nuclear or high-temperature containments require new specific components and a control organization, revealing the considerable repercussions on the structure of future plants. This section attempts to summarize the most significant research of the past few years on remote control of chemical processes. The new concepts, multi-point measurement techniques, associated components, and aspects of real-time measurement techniques are also examined. 

The attractiveness of this method goes beyond its application as described above. Remalingam (6) developed a rapid method for the fermentation of certain agricultural products. Application of their method may enable environmental monitoring for carbon-14 around nuclear facilities. The method can also be applied for accurate determination of carbon-14 in the environment using recently fermented materials. 

There are very many applications of gamma-ray spectrometry. Having already discussed environmental measurements in Chapter 16, in this chapter I discuss a number which, to me, seem to be of particular interest. Each of them deserves a much broader treatment but time and space limit me to a general introduction. Each of them draws upon the principles developed in previous chapters, the idea being to illustrate how academic, and perhaps theoretical, ideas find their expression in practical uses. As it happens, the examples are related in the sense that in these applications gamma spectrometry could be said to help make ordinary life safer measurements in support of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) help to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, waste monitoring helps to ensure that radioactive waste is disposed of properly and safeguards measurements make sure that nuclear material is properly accounted for. 

The development of a site-specific environmental monitoring plan will be informed by the Conceptual Site Model (CSM), which will be developed as part of the Environmental Statement that is required to support an application for a Nuclear Site Licence and relevant planning consents. With regard to environmental pollution, the CSM defines the following. 

The high level of safety and reliability required of nuclear power stations has meant that systematic estimates of polymer lifetime have been performed more widely here than in any other industry. The approach is described in Section 5.3. Many applications of polymers are in locations that cannot be monitored by regular inspection. The practice has been to subject polymers in these regions to independent assessment or environmental qualification , a process in which their potential degradation mechanisms are identified within a worst case environment of 40 °C and high humidity. If the predicted lifetime of a component is less than the design life of 40 years a schedule is laid down for its replacement. 

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