Military and Space

Fault tree analysis was created in the military industry during the Minuteman missile program. It is a graphical tool used to identify the faults in a system and which events lead to that catastrophic event they have proven so useful that other industries are starting to use them. The chemical industry is starting to use fault trees, especially in accident investigation. 

Hazard analysis and operations and support hazard analysis are tools that go through the system methodically and identify all hazards to life and equipment and were created by the space and military community. They are now ubiquitous among almost all industries. 

The aerospace and military communities could also benefit greatly from the chemical industry s use of HAZOP. Of course, HAZOP would have to be modified somewhat since the technique is really designed for process flows. But what is very interesting with HAZOPs is how it views processes. It could very easily be adapted to space and military manufacturing and operational processes. 

FMEA is a reliability engineering tool created in the space and military community that has been appropriated by the safety community in all industries. It identifies what causes a component to fail and what the effects or consequences would be. FMEAs were developed to evaluate very complex and dangerous systems (e.g., nuclear warheads) and fully understand all the ways it can fail. The technique is expensive so it is important that engineers are judicious in its application. 

Since the advent of the space era in the mid-1950s (though missile technology was developed earlier, it didn t really become spaceborne until this time frame), military safety tools were central. This was because national space programs were created out of military use and really were part of the space race. The NASA, European Space Agency, and other national space agencies took military know-how and applied it to civilian space safety. So, the same tools used by the military are also, and still are, used by civilian space safety. 

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Du Pont called this new lubricant material Krytox (64,65) and initially it had such extraordinary properties that it sold for 200/kg ( 187kg ca 1993). Krytox was and is used ia most of the vacuum pumps and diffusion oil pumps for the microelectronics iadustry ia this country and ia Japan because it produces no hydrocarbon (or fluorocarbon) vapor contamination. It has also found important appHcations ia the lubrication of computer tapes and ia other data processiag appHcations as weU as military and space appHcations. 

Propellants and Explosives. Hydrazine fuels include anhydrous hydrazine (AH), monomethyUiydrazine (MMH), and unsymmetrical dimethyUiydrazine (UDMH) for military and space programs. These compounds are used mainly as bipropeUant fuels, ie, with oxidizers, in rockets such as the Titan, MX missile, and the Ariane (UDA4H7X30. Using oxygen or fluorine as the oxidizer, hydrazine is exceeded only by hydrogen in specific impulse, ie, kilograms of thmst developed for each kilogram of fuel consumed per second (196). 

Numerous uses for PZT/PLZT thin films are under investigation. The device that, as of this writing, is closest to commercialization is a nonvolatile memory. This device, which utilizes a ferroelectric thin-film capacitor integrated onto siUcon circuitry, provides memory retention when the power is off because of the polarization retention of the ferroelectric capacitor. One and zero memory states arise from the two polarization states, — and +F, of the ferroelectric. Because PZT is radiation-hard, the devices are also of interest for military and space appHcations. 

Until recently the atmospheric chemistry of nitrogen-containing compounds such as the hydrazines, which are widely used as fuels in military and space vehicles, has received comparatively little attention. N,N-dimethyIhydrazine (also UDMH = unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine) is used in liquid-fueled rockets, and thus there Is a possibility that its use, storage, and handling could result in its release in the atmosphere. 

Perfluoropolyethers emerged on the market in the early 1970s. The first perfluoropolyether was the homopolymer of hexafluoropropylene oxide produced by DuPont, which has the structure [—CF2CF(CF3)0—] and this new lubricant material was called Krytox.31,32 Krytox was and is used in most of the vacuum pumps and diffusion oil pumps for the microelectronics industry because it does not produce any hydrocarbon or fluorocarbon vapor contamination. It also has important applications in the lubrication of computer tapes and in other data processing as well as military and space applications. 

The reported data have been compiled from the literature [12]. The values were approximated to typical dimensions that can be significantly exceeded by high-end component materials and optimized treatments at the expense of enormously rising process cost. Such improved parts of C3 materials are employed in military and space applications. Only scant information can be found in the open literature about their synthesis and properties. The reader may be advised that the property profile can be strongly improved if cost is not a consideration. 

Following its rapid rise to dominance in the consumer cell market intended for portable electronics, lithium ion technology was actively considered for special applications such as those in military and space missions. However, the poor performance of the state-of-the-art lithium ion cells at temperatures below —20 °C remained a major obstacle to enabling the normal operations in harsh environments that are frequently encountered in those missions. For example, according to a comprehensive... 

Hercopel a unique all-epoxide cure composite solid propellant with excellent mechanical and ballistic properties. Its outstanding performance in extended environments makes it well suited for tactical missiles Double-Base Solid Propellants a wide variety of physical and ballistic properties which can be tailored to meet specific performance requirements. Their high specific impulse and excellent reproducibility are two of the many reasons Hercules double-base propellants are found in many of our rocket motors and gas generators used for both military and space applications... 

Sikder, A.K., and Sikder, N. (2004) A review of advanced high performance, insensitive and thermally stable energetic materials emerging for military and space applications. J. Hazard. 

Many researchers and engineers see smart materials as the next great breakthrough in materials science. They are expected to have a host of applications in products ranging from military weaponry and aircraft to better performing sports materials. Since research and development costs are, and probably will continue to be, high, the first applications of smart materials are likely to he in areas where cost is less of a factor, such as military and space uses. Within a decade or two, however, many experts expect to see smart materials become part of a host of devices used by consumers in their everyday lives. 

Reversible fuel cells are also the focus of much research. A fuel cell can be run backward to take an external source of electricity and turn it into hydrogen, which can then be stored and later used by the fuel cell to generate electricity. If it turns out to be more cost-effective than other means of storing electricity, such as batteries, this strategy could have a variety of potential applications in military and space missions. Reversible fuel cells could also help address one of the barriers to more widespread use of renewable electricity—its intermittency. For instance, excess electricity generated by windmills during windy times could be stored and used during less windy times. 

Contrary to all the laser lines reported in Table 4, lasing at 3.9 /tm with ZBLAN Ho3+ fiber is achieved at liquid-nitrogen temperature. CW output power of 11 mW is obtained with 900 mW launched pump power at 885 nm. It must be noted that such lasers are of prime importance for military and space applications because they lie within an atmospheric window transparent from 3 /tm to 5 /tm. Very few lasers exist in this spectral region. 

There has also been an increased interest in SOI chips,comprising transistors in which a thin insulating layer lies between a thin layer of Si (in the channel region) and the bulk Si substrate (revisit Figure 4.18). This technology is not new in fact, SOI ICs have been used since the 1960s for military and space applications. As the relatively high cost of production continues to decrease, SOI substrates will undoubtedly be important for CMOS ICs within future commercial electronic devices. The insulation... 

In summary, the varied nature of substrates being cleaned and the contaminants present, and the required reliability of military and space hardware has led to the development and use of a wide variety of alternative materials and processes rather than a single ODS replacement solvent or process. Supercritical fluid is one of these alternative processes and the rest of this chapter discusses the trials and tribulations associated with implementation of supercritical fluid as a production cleaning process. 

This pattern may be changing, however, with the emergence of three general concerns. One concern mentioned earlier is that civilian research, development and demonstration programs, in contrast to military and space activities, have not been highly successful in producing important innovations. (it should be noted that there is doubt among economists even about the spill-over benefits of defense and space R D expenditures. (8))... 

Of late, many new ceramic materials have been developed for use in the various military and space programs. It is not possible to list them in this short section. Besides, this field is imder-going very rapid changes and new materials appear almost monthly. The reader is therefore advised to spend some time consulting the pertinent trade literature before proceeding with the experiment. He may find such investment of time very worthwhile, because it may result in a simpler, better, more convenient and cheaper experimental arrangement. 

APPLICATION OF POINT SENSORS TO MILITARY AND SPACE VEHICLES... 

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