Liquid products product specifications

For solid or liquid products, the specific electrical energy consumed is usually mass related... 

Section 10.1 will consider the physical processes which oil and gas (and unwanted fluids) from the wellhead must go through to reach product specifications. These processes will include gas-liquid separation, liquid-liquid separation, drying of gas. 

From these tables, it is seen that the stage temperatures and total liquid flows are already close to the converged solution after only one outer-loop iteration. However, the composition of the bottoms product, specifically with respect to the lightest component, C, is not close to the converged solution until after two iterations. The inside-out method does not always converge so dramatically, but is usually quite efficient,... 

Zero-ODP alternatives are the substitutes of choice in many foam-manufacturing applications. However, the use of HCFCs is sometimes necessary in order to meet some product specifications. The viability of liquid hydro fluorocarbon (HFC) isomers in this industry remains to be proved, and hydrocarbon alternatives need to be better qualified, as well. 

The lack of significant vapor pressure prevents the purification of ionic liquids by distillation. The counterpoint to this is that any volatile impurity can, in principle, be separated from an ionic liquid by distillation. In general, however, it is better to remove as many impurities as possible from the starting materials, and where possible to use synthetic methods that either generate as few side products as possible, or allow their easy separation from the final ionic liquid product. This section first describes the methods employed to purify starting materials, and then moves on to methods used to remove specific impurities from the different classes of ionic liquids. 

Specific gravity is used to calculate the mass of crude oils and its products. Usually, crude oils and their liquid products are first measured on a volume basis, then changed to the corresponding masses using the specific gravity. 

The field of composite liquids has not received much attention outside the industries associated with specific liquid products (e.g., the petroleum industiy). In areas such as lubrication, the United States has clear technological leadership. The situation is less clear for liquid crystals and adhesives, where there is greater competition from Europe and Japan. 

LPG (liquefied PETROLEUM GAs) Petroleum gas stored or processed as a liquid in equilibrium with vapour by refrigeration or pressurization. The two LPGs in general use are commercial propane and commercial butane supplied to product specifications, e.g. BS 4250. (These, or mixtures thereof, comprise LPG for the purpose of the Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gas Regulations 1972.)... 

Monitoring enzyme catalyzed reactions by voltammetry and amperometry is an extremely active area of bioelectrochemical interest. Whereas liquid chromatography provides selectivity, the use of enzymes to generate electroactive products provides specificity to electroanalytical techniques. In essence, enzymes are used as a derivatiz-ing agent to convert a nonelectroactive species into an electroactive species. Alternatively, electrochemistry has been used as a sensitive method to follow enzymatic reactions and to determine enzyme activity. Enzyme-linked immunoassays with electrochemical detection have been reported to provide even greater specificity and sensitivity than other enzyme linked electrochemical techniques. 

The various types of heterogeneous reactions are shown in Table 3.3. They are broadly grouped as solid-gas, solid-liquid, solid-solid, liquid-gas, and liquid-liquid reactions. The different types included in each group are also shown in the compilation. Some representative processes have been indicated as examples. It may be pointed out that in the group of solid-liquid reactions a specific mention of what is known as autocatalytic reactions has not been made. The autocatalytic processes occur when the liquid product reacts further with the solid undergoing reaction. The dissolution of copper in dilute sulfuric acid (or aqueous ammonia) in the presence of oxygen may be cited as an example ... 

Primary container-closure system-related data will need to cover storage, transportation, and use. The choice of materials of construction, their description, and the ability of the container-closure system to protect from moisture and/or light will need to be considered. The compatibility of the container-closure and its contents will need to consider sorption, leaching, and safety. The performance of the container-closure system will also need to be considered in terms of dose delivery from any associated device that is to be supplied as part of the product. Container-closure components will require adequate specifications covering description, identification, critical dimensional tolerances, and test methodology (including pharma-copeial and noncompendial methods). More data are likely to be required for liquid or semi-liquid products than for solid dosage forms. In the latter, product stability data and container-closure system specifications may suffice. 

Spent caustic solutions from petroleum refining. Petrochemical refineries use caustics to remove acidic compounds such as mercaptans from liquid petroleum streams to reduce produced odor and corrosivity as well as to meet product sulfur specifications. Spent liquid treating caustics from petroleum refineries are excluded from the definition of solid waste if they are used as a feedstock in the manufacture of napthenic and cresylic acid products. U.S. EPA believes that spent caustic, when used in this manner, is a valuable commercial feedstock in the production of these particular products, and is therefore eligible for exclusion. 

There are many trade-name products for calcium carbonate (e.g., Calel-D, Caltrate, Os-Cal). Only calcium carbonate alternative dosage forms (i.e., chewable, liquid, power) are specifically listed. 

Syngas cleanup system - low or high temperature and processes used to remove sulfur, nitrogen, particulates, and other compounds that may impact the suitability of the syngas for specific applications (i.e., turbine and fuel cell for electric power generation, hydrogen production, liquid fuel production, or chemical production). 

The current trend throughout the refining industry is to produce more fuel products from each barrel of petroleum and to process those products in different ways to meet product specifications for use in various (automobile, diesel, aircraft, and marine) engines. Overall, the demand for liquid fuels has expanded rapidly and demand has developed for gas oils and fuels for domestic central heating and fuel oil for power generation, as well as for hght distillates and other inputs, derived from crude oil, for the petrochemical industries. 

Detailed analysis of residual products, such as residual fuel oil, is more complex than the analysis of lower-molecular-weight liquid products. As with other products, there are a variety of physical property measurements that are required to determine that residnal fnel oil meets specifications. But the range of molecular types present in petrolenm prodncts increases significantly with an increase in the molecular weight (i.e., an increase in the number of carbon atoms per molecule). Therefore, characterization measurements or studies cannot, and do not, focus on the identification of specific molecular structures. The focus tends to be on molecular classes (paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics, polycyclic compounds, and polar compounds). 

Density (the mass of liquid per unit volume at 15°C) and the related terms specific gravity (the ratio of the mass of a given volume of liquid at 15°C to the mass of an equal volume of pure water at the same temperature) and relative density (same as specific gravity) are important properties of petroleum products as they are a part of product sales specifications, although playing only a minor role in studies of product composition. Usually, a hydrometer, pycnometer, or digital density meter is used for determination in all these standards. 

The reduced product solubility in ionic liquids provides a convenient control of the reaction equilibrium favoring high product selectivity by limiting consumption of the product in consecutive reactions. The properties of ionic liquids can be specifically tailored to achieve this goal. 

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