Liberalization

When used to separate solid-solid mixtures, the material is ground to a particle size small enough to liberate particles of the chemical species to be recovered. The mixture of solid particles is then dispersed in the flotation medium, which is usually water. Gas bubbles become attached to the solid particles, thereby allowing them to float to the surface of the liquid. The solid partices are collected from the surface by an overflow weir or mechanical scraper. The separation of the solid particles depends on the different species having different surface properties such that one species is preferentially attached to the bubbles. A number of chemicals are added to the flotation medium to meet the various requirements of the flotation process ... 

In the commercial extraction of alkaloids from the drugs in which they exist, the powdered drug, or an alcoholic extract of it, is treated with an alkali such as ammonia or lime to liberate the alkaloid and the alkaloid is then extracted by means of an organic solvent. The crude material thus obtained is purified and finally crystallized either as the base itself or as its water-soluble salts. 

The effect of a slow or "thermar neutron on a nucleus of is to split it into one or more neutrons and into large fragments of approximately equal mass. There is a liberation of energy equal to the loss in total mass, If the neutrons produced effect further fissions, a chain-reaction of successive fissions may be set up. Am and... 

The rapid fission of a mass of or another heavy nucleus is the principle of the atomic bomb, the energy liberated being the destructive power. For useful energy the reaction has to be moderated this is done in a reactor where moderators such as water, heavy water, graphite, beryllium, etc., reduce the number of neutrons and slow those present to the most useful energies. The heat produced in a reactor is removed by normal heat-exchange methods. The neutrons in a reactor may be used for the formation of new isotopes, e.g. the transuranic elements, further fissile materials ( °Pu from or of the... 

A base, formed by the bacterial degradation of histidine, and present in ergot and in many animal tissues, where it is liberated in response to injury and to antigen-antibody reactions. If injected it causes a condition of shock with dilatation of many blood vessels, loss of plasma from the capillaries to the tissues and a rapid fall in blood pressure. It is normally prepared from protein degradation products. 

Karl Fischer reagent A mixture ofU and SO2 dissolved in pyridine - MeOH used as a titrant for water with which HI is liberated and the pH determined with a meter. 

Crystallizes from water in large colourless prisms containing 2H2O. It is poisonous, causing paralysis of the nervous system m.p. 101 C (hydrate), 189°C (anhydrous), sublimes 157°C. It occurs as the free acid in beet leaves, and as potassium hydrogen oxalate in wood sorrel and rhubarb. Commercially, oxalic acid is made from sodium methanoate. This is obtained from anhydrous NaOH with CO at 150-200°C and 7-10 atm. At lower pressure sodium oxalate formed from the sodium salt the acid is readily liberated by sulphuric acid. Oxalic acid is also obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of citric acid and by the oxidation of carbohydrates with nitric acid in presence of V2O5. 

Obtained synthetically by one of the following processes fusion of sodium ben-zenesulphonate with NaOH to give sodium phenate hydrolysis of chlorobenzene by dilute NaOH at 400 C and 300atm. to give sodium phenate (Dow process) catalytic vapour-phase reaction of steam and chlorobenzene at 500°C (Raschig process) direct oxidation of cumene (isopropylbenzene) to the hydroperoxide, followed by acid cleavage lo propanone and phenol catalytic liquid-phase oxidation of toluene to benzoic acid and then phenol. Where the phenate is formed, phenol is liberated by acidification. 

Cj jH,2N202. Used as its sodium salt, which is a white hygroscopic powder. Unstable, readily absorbing carbon dioxide and liberating phenytoin. Made by treating a-bromodi-phenylacetylurea with alcoholic ammonia. It has a mild hypnotic and strong anticonvulsant action, and is used in the treatment of grand-mal and focal epilepsy. 

C4HjOftK. Colourless salt, soluble boiling water occurs in grape juice, deposited as argol during fermentation. Used in baking powders (liberates CO2 with NaHC03). 

TbF4 (TbF, -f F, at 3(WC) and Cs,Tbp7 are known and Tb oxides intermediate between Tb, , and TbO, are formed by healing Tb compounds in air. These higher oxides liberate oxygen from water. Tb, , and TbCl (TbCl, plus Tb) have metal-metal bonding. 

These additives must thus be capable of decomposing under heat action by liberating the species that react with the moving metal or metals by creating an interphase more fusible than the metal itself. 

Gas bubble separation time of petroleum oils NFT 60-149 ASTM D 3427 Time for air liberation after supersaturation (measurement of density)... 

For both volatile oil and blaok oil the initial reservoir temperature is below the critical point, and the fluid is therefore a liquid in the reservoir. As the pressure drops the bubble point is eventually reached, and the first bubble of gas is released from the liquid. The composition of this gas will be made up of the more volatile components of the mixture. Both volatile oils and black oils will liberate gas in the separators, whose conditions of pressure and temperature are well inside the two-phase envelope. 

A volatile oil contains a relatively large fraction of lighter and intermediate oomponents which vaporise easily. With a small drop in pressure below the bubble point, the relative amount of liquid to gas in the two-phase mixture drops rapidly, as shown in the phase diagram by the wide spacing of the iso-vol lines. At reservoir pressures below the bubble point, gas is released In the reservoir, and Is known as solution gas, since above the bubble point this gas was contained in solution. Some of this liberated gas will flow towards the producing wells, while some will remain in the reservoir and migrate towards the crest of the structure to form a secondary gas cap. 

Volatile oils are known as high shrinkage oils because they liberate relatively large amounts of gas either in the reservoir or the separators, leaving relatively smaller amounts of stabilised oil compared to black oils (also called low shrinkage oils). 

Unlike gases, liquid viscosity decreases as temperature increases, as the molecules move further apart and decrease their internal friction. Like gases, oil viscosity increases as the pressure increases, at least above the bubble point. Below the bubble point, when the solution gas is liberated, oil viscosity increases because the lighter oil components of the oil (which lower the viscosity of oil) are the ones which transfer to the gas phase. 

As the reservoir pressure drops from the initial reservoir pressure towards the bubble point pressure (PJ, the oil expands slightly according to its compressibility. However, once the pressure of the oil drops below the bubble point, gas is liberated from the oil, and the remaining oil occupies a smaller volume. The gas dissolved in the oil is called the solution gas, and the ratio of the volume gas dissolved per volume of oil is called the solution gas oil ratio (Rg, measured in scf/stb of sm /stm ). Above the bubble point, Rg is constant and is known as the initial solution gas oil ratio (Rgj), but as the pressure falls below the bubble point and solution gas is liberated, Rg decreases. The volume of gas liberated is (Rg - Rg) scf/stb. 

As solution gas is liberated, the oil shrinks. A particularly important relationship exists between the volume of oil at a given pressure and temperature and the volume of the oil at stock tank conditions. This is the oil formation volume factor (B, measured in rb/stb or rm /stm ). 

Figure 5.24 shows the changed in oil volume as pressure decreases from the initial pressure, the amount of gas remaining dissolved in the oil, and the volume of liberated gas. 

If the reservoir pressure remains above the bubble point then any gas liberated from the oil must be released in the tubing and the separators, and will therefore appear at the surface. In this case the producing gas oil ratio (Rp) will be equal to R. i.e. every stock tank barrel of oil produced liberates Rs scf of gas af surface. 

If, however, the reservoir pressure drops below the bubble point, then gas will be liberated in the reservoir. This liberated gas may flow either towards the producing wells under the hydrodynamic force imposed by the lower pressure at the well, or it may migrate... 

Once the bubble point is reached, solution gas starts to become liberated from the oil, and since the liberated gas has a high compressibility, the rate of decline of pressure per unit of production slows down. 

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