Kerosene, occupational exposure

Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects. Occupational exposures to inhaled formaldehyde, phenol and isomers of organic chlorohydrocarbons from Ksylamit which is a widely used liquid wood preservative, were associated with immunological effects such as decreased levels of CD4, suppressed mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation, and significantly decreased natural killer cell cytotoxicity. However, it should be noted that in the report Ksylamit is indicated to consist of a mixture of chlorinated benzenes, pentachlorophenol, alpha-chloronaphthalene, chloroparaffin and kerosene and that the authors provide no discussion of how phenol and formaldehyde are produced through the use of such a mixture (Baj et al. 1994). 

There are limited epidemiological data regarding carcinogenicity in humans following chronic inhalation exposure to kerosene. In one case-control study, there was no association between the use of kerosene stoves for cooking and bronchial cancer in nonsmoking women (Chan et al. 1979). In another case-control study, there was no association between renal cell cancer and occupational exposure to fuel oils. 

The National Occupational Exposure Survey conducted by NIOSH between 1980 and 1983 estimated that 96,345 employees were exposed to fuel oil no. 2, 1,526 workers were exposed to fuel oil no. 4, and 1,076,518 employees (including 96,255 females) were exposed to kerosene in the workplace. Worker exposure was most likely in industries associated with machinery and special trade contractors. General population exposure is potentially the greatest for persons living near an area where fuel oils have been dumped and have migrated into the groundwater or when fuel oil vapor has penetrated the soil and may enter basements of buildings. 

The subcommittee further concludes that in addition to inhalation exposures, the potential exists for a substantial contribution to the overall JP-8 exposure by the dermal route, including mucous membranes and the eyes, either by contact with vapors and aerosols or by direct skin contact with JP-8. It should be noted that earlier this year, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists proposed a Threshold Limit Value for kerosene and j et fuels, as a total hydrocarbon vapor, of200 mg/m3.2 Also, ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Inc., has set an occupational exposure level of 5 mg/m3 for kerosene and middle distillate fuel aerosols.3... 

The manuscript entitled A Recommended Standard for Occupational Exposure to Refined Petroleum Solvents from the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, July 1977, recommended standards to be applied to occupational exposure of workers to the following refinery petroleum solvents petroleum ether, rubber solvent, varnish maker s and painter s naphtha, mineral spirits, Stoddard solvents, and kerosene are all included in the term refined petroleum solvents. According to these standards petroleum ether and rubber solvents which contain 1.5% benzene, varnish maker s and painter s naphtha which contain 1.5% benzene, mineral spirits which contain 13-19% aromatics, Stoddard solvent which contains 0.1% benzene, 140 Flash Aliphatic Solvent which contains 0.7% benzene, kerosene. NIOSH indicated that some ofthe refined petroleum solvents contain aromatic hydrocarbons including, in some cases, benzene. Standards were applied, among others, to reduce the benzene exposure. Among others, the use of respirators and skin protective devices were required to protect from the effects of the solvents, as well as the benzene component. In his testimony in front of the Occupational Safety and Health... 

PIMs share considerable similarities with the more well-known liquid-liquid extraction techniques, commonly known as solvent extraction (SX), in which an extractant is dissolved in a large volume of solvent. PIMs are principally differentiated by the replacement of the solvent with a polymer matrix. Solvents used in SX are commonly volatile, toxic and flammable (e.g., kerosene, decane) and extractants are commonly corrosive and harmful to the environment if released (e.g., substituted aUcylamines, substituted alkylphosphorus compounds). By replacing the solvent with a relatively inert polymer matrix, the chemical hazards associated with separation processes are considerably reduced and solvent-associated fire hazards are essentially eliminated. Additionally, by entrapping the extractant in the polymer matrix, occupational exposure to the extractant could be considerably reduced. 

Particle size is a major factor which determines the alpha dose conversion factor for radon daughters (mGy/WLM). Data on indoor environments are emerging and indicate that a variety of specific conditions exist. For example, a dose factor four times that for a nominal occupational or environmental exposure exists if kerosene heater particles dominate the indoor aerosol and four times smaller if a hygroscopic particle dominates. 

Table II shows the nominal alpha dose factors for occupational mining exposure. Table III shows the alpha dose factors for the nominal environmental situation. Table IV shows the bronchial dose factors for the smallest sized particles, that dominated by the kerosene heater or 0.03 pm. particles. The radon daughter equilibrium was shifted to a somewhat higher value in this calculation because this source of particles generally elevates the particle concentration markedly with consequent increase in the daughter equilibrium. Table V shows the alpha dose for a 0.12 pm particle, the same as the nominal indoor aerosol particle, but for a particle which is assumed to be hygroscopic and grows by a factor of 4, to 0.5 pm, once in the bronchial tree.

Limited epidemiological information exists for carcinogenicity in humans following inhalation exposure to kerosene (vapor) (Chan et al. 1979) and other fuel oils such as diesel fuel (vapor) (Partanen et al. 1991). These studies either test kerosene exposure by use of kerosene stoves, and so are limited for the same reasons as the respiratory studies described above, or measure fuel oil exposures according to occupation. In the latter case, confounding from exposure to other chemicals, such as gasoline, exists. Both studies are limited since the duration and level of fuel oil exposure were not identified. Other available data are also reported to be inadequate to assess the carcinogenic potential of fuel oils (lARC 1989 Lam and Du 1988). 

Occupational standards for JP-8 are primarily based on knowledge about the toxicity of kerosene and naphtha (a petroleum distillate fraction). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) guidelines include an 8-hour (hr) time-weighted-average recommended exposure limit (TWA-REL) for naphtha of 400 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) (100 parts per million (ppm)) (NIOSH... 

Incendiary and explosive devices are used in most terrorist attacks. As a result of combustion of fuel and hazardous materials, PAHs are released in high volumes. Exposure of civilians or deployed personnel to fumes containing PAHs constitutes an acute exposure scenario. Additionally, defense forces involved in extinguishing oil well fires, and cleanup tasks are exposed to low levels of PAHs over a more protracted time period. In addition, over 1.3 million civilian and military personnel are occupationally exposed to hydrocarbon fuels, particularly gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, or kerosene on a near daily basis. Studies have reported acute or persisting neurotoxic effects from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to hydrocarbon fuels (Ritchie et n/., 2001), specifically burning of jet fuels, which release PAHs in considerable proportions. 

Kerosene may enter the water or soil environment as a result of regular use (e.g., evaporation of pesticide solvent), from spills during use or transportation, or from leaking storage facilities. The relatively low vapor pressure of kerosene makes inhalation exposure unlikely under ordinary occupational conditions unless conditions of poor ventilation exist. The combustion product of burned kerosene, carbon monoxide, is of real concern when kerosene heaters are not vented. Exposure to kerosene mist can occur as kerosene is often applied in the form of a spray. Eye and skin contact with kerosene and kerosene mists and vapors can occur. The exposure pathway usually of... 

The subcommittee reviewed information regarding the physical and chemical properties of JP-8, military operational scenarios that might result in exposures to fuel vapors and aerosols, toxicokinetics of the fuel, and epidemiologic and toxicologic evidence of adverse health effects of exposures to JP-8 vapors and aerosols. Because JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel and its toxicologic properties are thought to be similar to those of kerosene, the subcommittee also reviewed toxicity data on kerosene and other kerosene-based fuels. The subcommittee used the body of information on JP-8, kerosene, and other kerosene-based fuels to evaluate the interim PEL of 350 mg/m3 and determine whether it is adequate to protect the health of military personnel exposed to JP-8 occupationally. 

This chapter summarizes the findings on potential neurotoxicity from exposure to jet-propulsion fuel 8 (JP-8) presented in the National Research Council report Permissible Exposure levels forSekctedMiUtary Fuel Vapors (NRC 1996) and reviews additional studies, most of which were completed after the 1996 report was published. Since the 1996 report was released, additional epidemiologic studies associated with occupational JP-8 exposure and experimental animal studies examining the neurotoxic potential of kerosene-based jet fuels, including JP-8, and kerosene via the dermal and inhalation routes have been conducted. The subcommittee used the available information on JP-8 to assess the potential for toxic effects of JP-8 on the nervous system in humans. 

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