Falsifiability

Are there environmental or health and safety liabilities (for example, the facility falsified a permit application) which may reasonably be expected to result m criminal prosecution ... 

All techniques fail when Eq. (3-8) is not applicable with a small Xy. It has been observed in a few cases with pure sandy soils that electrical polarization of the sand can occur, which falsifies a potential measurement made without probes [3]. The potential is consequently found to be noticeably too negative. Off potentials that are not realistic may be measured they may have ranging... 

Ohmic voltage drops of the protection current were exclusively involved in the processes for 7/ -free potential measurements described above. Besides this, other foreign currents can cause potential drops and falsify the potential measurement (e.g., cell currents, equalizing currents and stray currents). 

In the cathodic protection of storage tanks, potentials should be measured in at least three places, i.e., at each end and at the top of the cover [16]. Widely different polarized areas arise due to the small distance which is normally the case between the impressed current anodes and the tank. Since such tanks are often buried under asphalt, it is recommended that permanent reference electrodes or fixed measuring points (plastic tubes under valve boxes) be installed. These should be located in areas not easily accessible to the cathodic protection current, for example between two tanks or between the tank wall and foundations. Since storage tanks usually have several anodes located near the tank, equalizing currents can flow between the differently loaded anodes on switching off the protection system and thus falsify the potential measurement. In such cases the anodes should be separated. 

Resistances in and of electrolytes are exclusively measured with low or audio frequency ac so as not to falsify the results with polarization effects. Measurement is mainly by four electrodes, which eliminates voltages due to the grounding field resistances of the measuring electrodes. 

What was the solution The reaction had to be carried out with a diazonium ion labeled with one or two atoms of the nitrogen isotope 15N in the presence of large concentrations of unlabeled nitrogen molecules (14N2), quenched before completion, and the remaining diazonium ion analyzed for 15N content if this had decreased relative to the initial value, the dogma would be falsified. 

Such an experiment also fulfills Popper s conclusion on how scientists should work their planned experiments should allow them to falsify a given hypothesis, rather than to verify ( prove ) it. 

Rarely does only one mechanism fit the observations. Other postulates may work as well, and the research worker must be alert to them. The prudent person considers a range of reaction schemes at an early stage in the investigation. With several options at hand, falsifying tests are devised so as to eliminate some contenders. With the range narrowed, one or only a few mechanisms remain. Even then, a mechanism is never really proved. Perhaps other experiments, not previously conceived of, would show... 

The students discuss these ideas and propose experiments to verily or falsify one of the presented theories. From a methodical point of view, several approaches from discussions, poster presentations up to actual role-plays are possible. The students have the possibility to choose one of the scientists as an advocate for their preconceptions. Using this technique, it will be easier for the students to express and defend their conception in classroom. 

In tire tests, therefore, a stiffer tire construction reduces the wear. The stiffer construction not only includes the carcass and belt (i.e., height to width ratio), but also the tread pattern and the stiffness of the tread compound. Therefore, a correct road test requires two identical vehicles, each equipped with a test group of four identical tires. If this is not possible at least one axle has to have identical tires. If this is not the case an average slip will balance the acting force on the axle. This will be larger for the stiffer tire than is required if both tires had the same stiffness and smaller for the softer tire. Hence, the result is falsified to the advantage of the softer tire. The same argument holds for multi-section tires. 

Fear of Fraud It is illuminating that there are companies that lock the input to a computer system (specifically a so-called LIMS, a Laboratory Information Management System) in such a manner that it takes the supervisor s password and signature to correct a missed keystroke, even if this is noticed before the (Enter) key is pressed. If the unwitnessed use of the (Backspace) key betrays malicious intent to falsify raw data, then every scientist should be in jail. 

Otherwise transferred to falsify an electronic record by ordinary means. 

Electronic signatures and handwritten signatures executed to electronic records shall be linked to their respective electronic records to ensure that the signatures cannot be excised, copied, or otherwise transferred to falsify an electronic record by ordinary means. 

OS 94][R 13][P 74]ForadmixtureofsampleswifhvaryingconcentrationsofCo(ll) and Cu(II), the respective changes in the Co(ll) chelate complex concentration as a function of contact time were optically derived [28]. Analysis was performed in the reaction/extraction area and also in the decomposition/removal area (Figure 4.102). As expected, more complex is formed in the reaction/extraction area with increasing contact time. Also, more complex results when increasing the Co(ll) concentration at constant Cu(ll) concentration. This proves that mass transfer is efficient (as high concentrations can also be handled) and that no interference from other analytes falsifies the measurement. As a result, calibration curves were derived. 

What is commonly understood by a fundamental approach is applying theoretically based mathematical models of necessary equipment items. Intrinsic (not falsified by processes other than a chemical transformation) kinetics of all processes are investigated, transport phenomena are studied, flow patterns are identified, and relevant microscopic phenomena are studied. It is intended to separately study as many intrinsic stages as possible and to combine results of these investigations into a mathematical model. Such a model contains only a limited amount of theory (grey models, gross models, or tendency models). Obviously, the extrapolation power of these models strongly depends on the content of theory. The model... 

Estimation of parameters. Model parameters in the selected model are then estimated. If available, some model parameters (e.g. thermodynamic properties, heat- and mass-transfer coefficient, etc.) are taken from literature. This is usually not possible for kinetic parameters. These should be estimated based on data obtained from laboratory expieriments, if possible carried out isothermal ly and not falsified by heat- and mass-transport phenomena. The methods for parameter estimation, also the kinetic parameters in complex organic systems, and for discrimination between models are discussed in more detail in Section 5.4.4. More information on parameter estimation the reader will find in review papers by Kittrell (1970), or Froment and Hosten (1981) or in the book by Froment and Bischoff (1990). 

Fixed-bed reactors are used for testing commercial catalysts of larger particle sizes and to collect data for scale-up (validation of mathematical models, studying the influence of transport processes on overall reactor performance, etc.). Catalyst particles with a size ranging from 1 to 10 mm are tested using reactors of 20 to 100 mm ID. The reactor diameter can be decreased if the catalyst is diluted by fine inert particles the ratio of the reactor diameter to the size of catalyst particles then can be decreased to 3 1 (instead of the 10 to 20 recommended for fixed-bed catalytic reactors). This leads to a lower consumption of reactants. Very important for proper operation of fixed-bed reactors, both in cocurrent and countercurrent mode, is a uniform distribution of both phases over the entire cross-section of the reactor. If this is not the case, reactor performance will be significantly falsified by flow maldistribution. 

Further, in parameter selection, it is recommended to choose the feature empty syringe before filling with next sample to avoid mixing with the rinsing solvent when the sample is withdrawn from the syringe. Small instrument details incorrectly chosen can falsify the yield calculated later on, or result in loss of costly sample. For application of the whole sample volume, i.e., to minimize the vial dead volume, the needle can be adjusted closer to the bottom of the vial, but special care should be taken with that parameter because wrong adjustment may destroy the needle. 

In the following sections we propose typical methods of unsupervised learning and pattern recognition, the aim of which is to detect patterns in chemical, physicochemical and biological data, rather than to make predictions of biological activity. These inductive methods are useful in generating hypotheses and models which are to be verified (or falsified) by statistical inference. Cluster analysis has... 

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