Falsifiability condition

Unfortunately, it is impossible to design an experiment that will totally disprove a theory based on random phenomena. Various outcomes may occur, some of which may be unlikely but not impossible. Thus Popper s falsifiability condition does not apply. The statistical method advocated by Fisher (1956) attempts to overcome this problem by substituting unlikely for impossible but otherwise follows the principles of the scientific method. With this substitution, Fisher and others proposed conceptual structures for testing theories and scientific hypotheses under conditions of uncertainty that are analogous to the scientific method. However, these approaches, although being very useful in practice, have raised a host of conceptual issues that are the subject of ongoing debates. 

Mislow and Bickart (258) have recently discussed the properties, and specified the limitations and essential features, of models that can be used for the prediction of chirality of a molecular system. In the simplified and idealized representation of molecular stracture, nonessential features are deliberately left out the model summarizes some selected aspects of the system and completely disregards or even falsifies, others. The model must be adequate to the time scale in which the phenomenon is observed. In particular, in mobile conformational systems it should refer to a time-averaged structure. In other words, the model can have a higher symmetry than that observed under static conditions (e.g., by X-ray diffraction in the crystalline state or by NMR under slow exchange conditions) (259). 

Urea-formaldehyde resins are generally prepared by condensation in aqueous basic medium. Depending on the intended application, a 50-100% excess of formaldehyde is used. All bases are suitable as catalysts provided they are partially soluble in water. The most commonly used catalysts are the alkali hydroxides. The pH value of the alkaline solution should not exceed 8-9, on account of the possible Cannizzaro reaction of formaldehyde. Since the alkalinity of the solution drops in the course of the reaction, it is necessary either to use a buffer solution or to keep the pH constant by repeated additions of aqueous alkali hydroxide. Under these conditions the reaction time is about 10-20 min at 50-60 C. The course of the condensation can be monitored by titration of the unused formaldehyde with sodium hydrogen sulfite or hydroxylamine hydrochloride. These determinations must, however, be carried out quickly and at as low temperature as possible (10-15 °C), otherwise elimination of formaldehyde from the hydroxymethyl compounds already formed can falsify the analysis. The isolation of the soluble condensation products is not possible without special precautions, on account of the facile back-reaction it can be done by pumping off the water in vacuum below 60 °C imder weakly alkaline conditions, or better by careful freeze-drying. However, the further condensation to crosslinked products is nearly always performed with the original aqueous solution. 

The main problem with this approach is that the intermediate must be brought to reaction conditions almost instantaneously. A transient of any length of time, say, to reach the elevated temperature and pressure of the reaction under study, is apt to falsify the results seriously. Equipment of the type described in Figure 3.3 in Section 3.1.1 or some other injection mechanism is needed. 

Also the instruction Test is absurd. A test implies a theory which needs to be proven or disappproved. A test should be a procedure of submitting a theory to such conditions as an attempt to falsify it or to refute it ... 

Model building is part of all science lovely falsifiable hypotheses are built and then broken on the cold facts. Certain key components are common to all models of life s origins—water (though not necessarily in an ocean aerosols are possible hosts of proto-life) inorganic supplies of thermodynamic drive (i.e., interface settings where two or more different conditions are... 

When such conditions are not met, then the usual interpretation of the data may be falsified by diffusion effects in that the reactant concentrations assumed at any time on the basis of pressure measurement or... 

Mars analog Assuming that varnish is a biogenic rock coating, the occurrence of Mn-rich varnishes on Mars provides evidence of life or former life The use of varnish as a bioindicator of Martian life is untenable until abiotic origins of Mn-enhancement are falsified for Martian conditions... 

Experiments designed to confirm a theory (or to falsify it) are called confirmatory and those designed to merely accumulate information are termed exploratory. Exploratory experiments are a useful first step in the process of formulating scientific theories. Either type must follow strict methodological procedures and adhere to a detailed experimental protocol describing the conditions of experimentation, the methods of measurement, and all other aspects that might affect the results. The experimenter must record the raw data prior to any analysis and document any protocol deviations, documenting all aspects of the experiment such that another scientist can precisely repeat it. 

The previous example showed that pumping from an observation well screened over the complete thickness of the aquifer results in a mixture of different types of water. This is problematic for the evaluation of natural attenuation processes since the concentrations of various substances such as contaminant, electron acceptors and other chemical parameters have to be considered. The mixing of waters with different redox conditions during the measurement can lead to microbial and chemical reactions which falsify the true conditions within the aquifer. 

For an accurate quantification of the content of substructures, it is essential that the NMR spectra are recorded under appropriate experimental conditions. In general, two effects can falsify the signal intensities (i) an incomplete spin-lattice (Ti) relaxation and (ii) a heteronuclear Overhauser effect, resulting from H decoupling. Typically, the NMR signal quantification is less crucial from the proton spectrum than from spectra of other nuclei, which require the correct choice of experimental conditions. To date, very few relaxation studies have been reported comparing data for terminal, linear, and dendritic units. Longer Tm values were... 

The objective interpretation of probability calculus (Popper, 1976 48, and Appendix IX, Third Comment [1958]) is necessary because no result of statistical sampling is ever inconsistent with a statistical theory unless we make them with the help of. .. rejection rules (Lakatos, 1974 179 see also Nagel, 1971 366). It is under these rejection rules that probability calculus and logical probability approach each other these are also the conditions under which Popper explored the relationship of Fisher s likelihood function to his degree of corroboration, and the conditions arise only if the random sample is large and (e) is a statistical report asserting a good fit (Farris et ah, 2001). In addition to the above, in order to maintain an objective interpretation of probability calculus, Popper also required that once the specified conditions are obtained, we must proceed to submit (e) itself to a critical test, that is, try to find observable states of affairs that falsify (e). 

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