End use costs

H2Sim compares the end-use cost of using hydrogen in either FCV or hybridized, direct hydrogen combustion vehicles in 2020 with today s internal combustion engine vehicles, hybrid, and electric vehicles. It also considers a 2020 FCV with onboard production of hydrogen. The default costs associated with each of the vehicles included in H2Sim were summarized in Table 8.1. This chapter focuses on the fuel and the total end-use costs associated with each vehicle based on fuel and vehicle cost sensitivity analysis. 

Prod pipe-large pipe-large truck-GH truck-LH pipe-large truck-MH rail-GH ship-LH rail-LH  

Underground GH, Gaseous hydrogen LH, Liquefied hydrogen MH, Metal hydride FS, Fueling station. 

Internal combustion engine EV, Electric vehicle FCV, Fuel ceU vehicle FCV OB, Fuel cell vehicle with onboard reformer. Assumes the use of electricity from gas combined cycle. 

Focusing on fuel costs per mile (or even aggregate) is rather misleading, however, as fuel costs are a small component of total driving costs. The total cost per mile is determined by the cost of the vehicle, license and registration, insurance, maintenance, and fuel. Table 8.4 summarizes the total costs per mile for each vehicle in HjSim. As previously mentioned, HjSim compares predicted 2020 costs for the hydrogen vehicles 

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It should persist ia the mbber over its entire life cycle. For noncarbon black filled mbbers, the antiozonant must be nondiscoloring and nonstaining. The antiozonant should have a low toxicity and should be nonmutagenic, and, the antiozonant should be acceptable economically, eg, have low manufactufing and end use costs. 

The incremental cost of using methanol in gasoline is approximately equal to the incremental cost of converting the methanol to gasoline by the Mobil process. Such end-use costs must of course be included in overall fuel comparisons. 

The potential of biomass to substitute for petroleum is examined in terms of resource availability and cost, conversion technology, and conversion and end-use costs. The most energy-efficient and least costly mode of utilization of wood is direct burning, followed by gasification, and, last, liquefaction. 

For the case of the least expensive hydrogen production option (coal gasification) with pipeline transportation, the HjHybrid vehicle is the least expensive hydrogen vehicle to operate overall (0.54 /mile) and is competitive with today s ICE vehicles (0.55 /mile). A FCV, with a base efficiency 2.5 times a comparably sized ICE vehicle and costing 4100 more, has an estimated operating cost of 0.62-0.70 /mile, at least seven cents higher than the ICE vehicle. Hybrids already are competitive with ICE vehicles. The electric vehicle and the 2020 FCV with onboard reformation have the highest end-use costs due to battery costs for the electric vehicle and the onboard reformer cost for the FCV, which adds almost 4000 to the vehicle cost. 

FCV, and FCV OB, assuming the default vehicle efficiencies summarized in Table 8.1 Total end-use costs... 

The properties of fillers which induence a given end use are many. The overall value of a filler is a complex function of intrinsic material characteristics, eg, tme density, melting point, crystal habit, and chemical composition and of process-dependent factors, eg, particle-si2e distribution, surface chemistry, purity, and bulk density. Fillers impart performance or economic value to the compositions of which they are part. These values, often called functional properties, vary according to the nature of the appHcation. A quantification of the functional properties per unit cost in many cases provides a vaUd criterion for filler comparison and selection. The following are summaries of key filler properties and values. 

The decomposition kinetics of an organic peroxide, as judged by 10-h HLT, largely determines the suitabiUty of a particular peroxide initiator in an end use appHcation (22). Other important factors ate melting point, solubiUty, cost, safety, efficiency, necessity for refrigerated storage and shipment, compatibihty with production systems, effects on the finished product, and potential for activation. 

Proprietary blend formulations based on polysulfone, polyethersulfone, and polyphenylsulfone are sold commercially by Amoco Corporation to meet various end use requirements. The blends based on polysulfone are sold under the MINDEL trademark. A glass fiber-reinforced blend based on PES is offered under the trade name RADEL AG-360. This offers most of the performance characteristics of 30% glass fiber-reinforced polyethersulfone but at a lower cost. Two blend product lines are offered based on PPSF. These are designated as the RADEL R-4000 and R-7000 series of products. The former is a lower cost alternative to RADEL R PPSF homopolymer offering most of the performance attributes unique to PPSF. The R-7000 series of resins have been formulated for use in aircraft interiors for civil air transport. They exhibit a very high degree of resistance to flammabihty and smoke release. 

Cycloaliphatic amines are comprised of a cyclic hydrocarbon stmctural component and an amine functional group external to that ring. Included in an extended cycloaUphatic amine definition ate aminomethyl cycloaUphatics. Although some cycloaUphatic amine and diamine products have direct end use apphcations, their major function is as low cost organic intermediates sold as moderate volume specification products. 

There are many techniques available for measuring the particle-size distribution of powders. The wide size range covered, from nanometers to millimeters, cannot be analyzed using a single measurement principle. Added to this are the usual constraints of capital costs versus running costs, speed of operation, degree of skill required, and, most important, the end-use requirement. 

In general, it is probably better for the typical application to use the lossless snubbing and active clamp techniques than the quasi-resonant techniques, because of design time and end product cost. 

If the critical impurities are known, then only a selected list of elements need to be examined, with some improvement in the cost effectiveness of the analysis. However, the list of elements to be included in the qualification analysis is often historical and related to the limitations of the analytical methods previously used for qualification rather than for technological reasons related to the end use of the metal. As a result, problems in application can arise for no obvious reason. The time and cost of extending the impurity list for GDMS analysis to include essentially all elements is minimal, considering the additional information gained. 

It is obvious that the range of possible formulations based on poly(vinyl chloride) and related copolymers is very wide indeed. For each end-use the requirements must be carefully considered and a formulation devised that will give a compound of adequate properties at the lowest cost. In assessing cost it is not only important to consider the cost of the compound but also comparative processing costs, the possible cost of storing additional materials and many other cost factors. 

As mentioned earlier, unmodified polystyrene first found application where rigidity and low cost were important prerequisites. Other useful properties were the transparency and high refractive index, freedom from taste, odour and toxicity, good electrical insulation characteristics, low water absorption and comparatively easy processability. Carefully designed and well-made articles from polystyrene were often found to be perfectly suitable for the end-use intended. On the other hand the extensive use of the polymers in badly designed and badly made products which broke only too easily caused a reaction away from the homopolymer. This resulted, first of all, in the development of the high-impact polystyrene and today this is more important than the unmodified polymer (60% of Western European market). 

The application of the moulding powders is limited by their cost, which is greater than that of general purpose phenolics. Main end uses have been for electronic applications, where good electrical properties and heat resistance are required, particularly in mouldings containing inserts. 

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