Least cost

Antimony pentoxide is priced about two to three times higher than the trioxide. However, because it is more efficient than the trioxide, the pentoxide is at least cost-equivalent. Antimony pentoxide is manufactured by both Philadelphia Quartz and Laurel Industries under the Nyacol and Fkeshield trade names. 

In an economic comparison of these three common abatement systems, a 1991 EPA study (58) indicates extended absorption to be the most cost-effective method for NO removal, with selective reduction only matching its performance for small-capacity plants of about 200—250 t/d. Nonselective abatement systems were indicated to be the least cost-effective method of abatement. The results of any comparison depend on the cost of capital versus variable operating costs. A low capital cost for SCR is offset by the ammonia required to remove the NO. Higher tail gas NO... 

The composition of dairy substitutes is highly variable and generally represents the least-cost formulation consistent with consumer acceptance of the product. These imitations invariably have lower fat and protein levels than the dairy products that they are made to resemble. The gross compositions of filled milk, meUorine, synthetic milk, sour cream, coffee whiteners, whipped toppings, and cheese are Hsted in Table 10. A comparison of the composition of certain dairy products and their substitutes is presented in Table 11. 

Optimal economic insulation thickness may be determined Iw various methods. Two of these are the minimum-total-cost method and the incremental-cost method (or marginal-cost method). The minimum-total-cost method involves the actual calculations of lost energy and insulation costs for each insulation thickness. The thickness producing the lowest total cost is the optimal economic solution. The optimum thickness is determined to be the point where the last dollar invested in insulation results in exactly 1 in energy-cost savings ( ETI— Economic Thickness for Industrial Insulation, Conservation Pap. 46, Federal Energy Administration, August 1976). The incremental-cost method provides a simplified and direcl solution for the least-cost thickness. 

In order to synthesize an optimal MEN for intercepting the off-gas condensate, we constnict the pinch diagram as shown in Fig. 4.9. Since the three MSA s lie completely to the left of the rich stream, they are all thermodynamically feasible. Hence, we choose the one with the least cost ( /kg NH3 removed) namely the resin. The annual operating cost for removing ammonia using the resin is ... 

The quality of the product or service can be verified by you on receipt using your normal inspection and test techniques. (This is the least costly of methods and usually applies where achievement of the requirements is measurable by examination of the end product.)... 

Krause, F., and Eto, J. 1988. Least-Cost Utility Planning, A Handbook for Public Utility Commissioners, The Demand Side Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Washington, DC National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. 

Moskovitz, D. 1989. Profits and Progress Through Least-Cost Planning. Washington, DC National Association of Regulatoiy Utility Coininissioners. 

Robert Boyle, an Irish chemist noted for his pioneering experiments on the properties of gases, discovered methanol (CH3OH) in 1661. For many years methanol, known as wood alcohol, was produced by heating hardwoods such as maple, birch, and hickory to high temperatures m the absence of air. The most popular modern method of producing methanol, which IS also the least costly, is from natural gas (methane) by the direct combination of carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. Methanol also can be produced more expensively from oil, coal, and biomass. 

Figure 8-28 presents the usual determination of optimum or near optimum theoretical trays at actual reflux based on performance. It is not necessarily the point of least cost for all operating costs, febrication costs or types of trays. A cost study should be made to determine the merits of moving to one side or other of the so-called optimum point From the Figure 8-28 ...

There are three common methods for SO abatement. These are tine gas scrubbing, feedstock desulfurization, and SO additive. The SOj, additive is often the least costly alternative, which is the approach practiced by many refiners. 

The selection from the possible designs is made on a cost effectiveness basis. The least costly construction would be the best unless there is an inherently more useful construction for aesthetic or other reasons. In most design cases this will be an aesthetic... 

The approach just outlined is after-the-fact approach to QC all defects caught in this manner are already present in the product being processed. This type of QC will usually catch defects and is necessary, but it does little to correct the basic problem(s) in production. One of the problems with add-on QC of this type is that it constitutes one of the least cost-effective ways of obtaining quality products. Quality must be built into a product from the beginning of the design that follows the FALLO approach (Fig. 1-3) it cannot be inspected into the process. The target is to control quality before a product becomes defective. 

An effective HE or cost-effectiveness analysis is designed to answer certain questions, such as Is the treatment effective What will it cost and How do the gains compare with the costs By combining answers to all of these questions, the technique helps decision makers weigh the factors, compare alternative treatments, and decide which treatments are most appropriate for specific situations. Typically, one chooses the option with the least cost per unit of measure gained the results are represented by the ratio of cost to effectiveness (C E). With this type of analysis, called a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), various disease end points that are affected by therapy (risk markers, disease severity, death) can be assessed by corresponding indexes of therapeutic outcome (mmHg blood pressure reduction, hospitalizations averted, life years saved, respectively). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to elaborate further on principles of cost-effectiveness analyses. A number of references are available for this purpose [11-13]. 

Overall, taking into account all economic comparisons of olanzapine and conventional drugs, olanzapine appears to be at least cost-neutral and may be cost-saving. However, the uniformity of results reported probably owes more to the reliance on a single source of data than to the reproducibility of economic... 

Pharmacoeconomic studies of other dmgs are fewer and, as with clozapine, rely on less robusr merhods. Risperidone is probably associared wirh lower costs. A Swedish study applying UK costs to patient outcomes showed a reduction in mean direct costs of about 7500 per patient per year (Guest et al, 1996). Other studies, however, show risperidone ro be cost-neutral (Revicki, 1999). There are fewer studies of olanzapine (although there are many publications), and taken together they suggest the dmg is at least cost-neutral with respect to immediate costs (Fichner et al, 1998 Hamilton et al, 1999). 

ALGAS. Asia least-cost greenhouse gas abatement strategy India, ADB-GEF-UNDP, Asian Development Bank and United Nations Development Programme, Manila, the Philippines, 1998, pp. 238. 

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