Dermal contamination

Nitroaromatic compounds are highly toxic to humans and animals. Most nitrophenols and nitrocresols are absorbed efficiently from the gastrointestinal tract, across the skin, and by the lung when fine droplets are inhaled. Fatal poisonings have occnrred as a result of dermal contamination. Except in a few sensitive individuals, the comopunds are only moderately irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. 

Diquat is somewhat less damaging to skin than paraquat, but irritation effects may appear following dermal contamination. Diquat has severe toxic effects on the central nervous system that are not typical of paraquat. 

No human cases have been reported so treatment recommendations are speculative. Dermal contamination probably requires no treatment other than decontamination. For gastric contamination caused by swallowing, treatment by emesis, gastric lavage, and/or activated charcoal may be indicated. Patients should be monitored for CNS depression, ptosis (drooping eyelid), and liver functional abnormalities if significant amounts (> 8 g) have been ingested. 

Patients presenting to healthcare facilities with dermal contamination pose a potential risk to healthcare personnel. Contaminated patients should not gain entrance into the healthcare facility prior to decontamination. Personnel involved in the dermal decontamination may need to don personal protective equipment. Most chemical exposures do not pose a risk of secondary exposure. For exposures that occur in the workplace, Material Safety Data Sheets can be obtained and either the local poison center or the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry can be contacted to obtain advice on what level of protection is appropriate. Contaminated clothing and valuables should be placed in an impervious bag to avoid potential of gassing. 

All pyrethroids and pyrethrins have low volatility (lO -lO mmHg), and so occupational and domestic use exposure is primarily via dermal contamination or inhalation/ingestion of spray droplets. Consumers are exposed to low-level residues of agricultural pyrethroids in many foods. Residues of domestic pyrethroids and pyrethrins have been found in house dust. 

TDC—Total Source T. dermal contamination B. Hart, "The Hand-Held Electrodyn Sprayer Worker Hazard,1 " ICI Plant Protection Division... 

Dermal Effects. Triphenyltin acetate, chloride, and dichloride are irritants tricyclohexyltin is not. In a case of massive dermal contamination with triphenyltin chloride, the patient presented a dermal bum along with an important desquamation, developed fever and renal failure, and died after two cardiac arrests [30]. 

Fig. 2. Dermal contamination as revealed by fluorescence - contamination of a sheep-dipper who wore a woUen cardigan and woUen trousers, but no waterproofs (Roff 1997)...

In addition, the use of chemical protective clothing was not supported by air or surface contamination monitoring to determine the potential for dermal exposure and the appropriate PPE. 

Two of seven children who ingested methyl parathion in contaminated drinking water, and also were exposed by inhalation and possibly by dermal contact following spraying of methyl parathion inside a house, died (Dean et al. 1984). Additional details are provided in Section 3.2.1.1. 

Serum endosulfan was 4 pg/L at 30 hours after an agricultural pilot was exposed dermally (and probably also by inhalation) for approximately 45 minutes in clothing that was heavily contaminated with endosulfan and methomyl (Cable and Doherty 1999) the dermal exposure level was not estimated and no other measures of tissue levels of endosulfan were obtained. A study by Kazen et al. (1974) has identified endosulfan residues on the hands of workers after relatively long periods free from exposure. Endosulfan residues were identified on the hands of one worker approximately 30 days after exposure and on the hands of one worker who had not used endosulfan during the preceding season. 

Overview. Humans living in areas surrounding hazardous waste sites may be exposed to endosulfan primarily via dermal contact with or ingestion of contaminated soils since this compound is found bound to soil particles. Although endosulfan can be found in water as colloidal suspensions adsorbed to particles, ingestion of contaminated finished drinking water is not expected to be a major route of exposure since endosulfan is not very water soluble. Likewise, inhalation exposure to endosulfan via volatilization from contaminated media is not a major route of exposure since endosulfan is not very... 

People living near hazardous waste sites may be exposed to endosulfan primarily via dermal contact with or ingestion of contaminated soils since endosulfan is found bound to soil particles. Another possible... 

The most important routes of exposure to endosulfan for the general population are ingestion of food and the use of tobacco products with endosulfan residues remaining after treatment. Farmers, pesticide applicators, and individuals living in the vicinity of hazardous waste disposal sites contaminated with endosulfan may receive additional exposure through dermal contact and inhalation. 

Bioavailability from Environmental Media. Endosulfan can be absorbed following inhalation of contaminated workplace air and ingestion of insecticide-contaminated food (Ely et al. 1967). Dermal contact with or ingestion of endosulfan that is tightly bound to soil particles is an exposure route of... 

Dermal Effects. Some of the people in Woburn, Massachusetts, who had been chronically exposed to trace amounts of trichloroethylene and other substances in the drinking water reported skin lesions (Byers et al. 1988). These were maculopapular rashes that were said to occur approximately twice yearly and lasted 2-4 weeks. These skin conditions generally ceased 1-2 years after cessation of exposure to contaminated water. The limitations of this study are discussed in Section 2.2.2.8. A case study was published of a 63-year-old rural South Carolina woman exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated hydrocarbons in her well water, who developed diffuse fascitis, although her husband did not (Waller et al. 1994). The level of trichloroethylene measured in the well water was 19 mg/L. Substitution of bottled water for drinking resulted in improved symptoms. 

Exposure to trichloroethylene can occur via the inhalation, oral, and dermal routes in people living in areas surrounding hazardous waste sites if evaporation occurs from contaminated soils or spill sites, or if contaminated water is ingested or used in bathing. Individuals who work in the vicinity of industries that use this substance may breathe trichloroethylene vapors or come into physical contact with spilled trichloroethylene. The group with the greatest likelihood for substantial exposure to trichloroethylene consists of those exposed to trichloroethylene in the workplace. 

Although human data are not extensive, the data suggest that dermal effects may be a concern for some humans exposed to trichloroethylene, particularly through bathing with contaminated water however, it is unlikely that exposure to trichloroethylene in the air or soil at hazardous waste sites would be irritating to human skin. Some people may develop immunological sensitivity to trichloroethylene which may manifest as a dermal response following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to trichloroethylene. 

Klienfeld and Tabershaw 1954 Prout et al. 1985 Stephens 1945 Stevens et al. 1992 Templin et al. 1993 Withey et al. 1983), or dermal (Bogen et al. 1992 Jakobson et al. 1982 McCormick and Abdul-Rahman 1991 Sato and Nakajima 1978 Steward and Dodd 1964 Tsuruta 1978) exposure. All these routes of exposure may be of concern to humans because of the potential for trichloroethylene to contaminate the air, drinking water, food, and soil. More information on the absorption of trichloroethylene following ingestion of contaminated soil and plants grown in contaminated soil near hazardous waste sites are needed to determine bioavailability of the compound in these media. 

No reports were located regarding death in humans that could be associated with acute-, intermediate,- or chronic-duration dermal exposure to americium. An explosion and accidental exposure of a 64-year-old man to 1-5 Ci (37-185 GBq) of241 Am was followed by immediate treatment to reduce contamination to approximately 6 mCi (222 MBq) and to 1 mCi (37 MBq) after the first day (Thompson 1983 Toohey and Kathren 1995). Survival was likely the result of intense and long-term chelation therapy, such as with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA). The patient lived until natural death 11 years after the accident (see Section 3.2.3.2 for more detailed information regarding this accidental exposure and subsequent treatment and follow-up). 

Dermal Effects. Skin irritation was noted in wildlife officers at the RMA after they handled sick or dead ducks without gloves (NIOSH 1981). Although the investigators concluded that diisopropyl methylphosphonate contributed to the local effects, a number of other compounds were present. Analysis of the pond water indicated the presence of a number of organic and inorganic contaminants, including diisopropyl methylphosphonate (11.3 ppm) aldrin (0.368 ppm) dieldrin (0.0744 ppm) dicyclo-pentadiene, bicycloheptadiene, diethyl benzene, dimethyl disulfide, methyl acetate, methyl isobutyl ketone, toluene, and sodium (49,500 ppm) chloride (52,000 ppm) arsenic (1,470 ppm) potassium (180 ppm) fluoride (63 ppm) copper (2.4 ppm) and chromium (0.27 ppm). Because of the presence of numerous compounds, it is unclear whether diisopropyl methylphosphonate was related to the irritation. 

Common methods for reducing dermal absorption of diisopropyl methylphosphonate include removing contaminated clothes and washing contacted skin with soap and water (Ellenhom and Barceloux 1988). Following eye contact with diisopropyl methylphosphonate, eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water. In rabbits, rinsing the eyes immediately after direct exposure to diisopropyl methylphosphonate has been shown to reduce effects (Hart 1976). 

The material was poured over the backs of the animals as a ringworm treatment. Exposure was expected to have been by the oral route as well as by dermal contact, because the cows were seen licking their backs or the backs of other cows 14 of 50 cows died within 4 weeks of exposure. The authors stated that this fluid may have been contaminated with tri-ort/zo-cresyl phosphate. 

After a single dermal exposure to waste from the reclamation of a Fyrquel hydraulic fluid that may have been contaminated with tri-or/7 o-cresyl phosphate (TOCP), no apparent signs of neurotoxicity were observed in calves of 10 cows that manifested neurotoxicity just after the birth of the calves. The cows were apparently also exposed orally concurrent to the dermal exposure (Julian et al. 1976). No intermediate- or chronic-duration dermal studies examining developmental effects in animals were located. 

There is no available information on absorption of mineral oil hydraulic fluids following inhalation or dermal absorption. There are data suggesting that mineral oil aerosols are cleared from the lungs via alveolar macrophages. No specific methods to reduce absorption of dermally applied or inhaled mineral oil hydraulic fluids were located, but it is expected that removal of contaminated clothing and multiple washings of contaminated skin would reduce the dermal absorption of these materials. 

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