Cost aspects

These generally defined requirements are met quite comprehensively by microfiber glass fleeces. These are blends of C-glass fibers of various diameter, which are processed in the usual way on a Foudrinier paper machine into a voluminous glass mat. The blending ratio gains special importance since cost aspects have to be balanced against technical properties. The... 

Several variations of the basic concept have been tried some including a polyethylene encap-sulant and some including slightly different chemical and physical properties of the individual layers. The safety, survivability, utility, and cost aspects of these taggants will be discussed later... 

A detailed consideration of the cost aspect is beyond the scope of this book but it is vitally important. Factory space and plant cost money in rent and maintenance so that, the longer they are occupied in producing a given number of items, the higher is the cost of each. The number of people involved in a process, especially if they are skilled, often accounts for a major part of the cost. The price of raw materials may only contribute a small fraction to the ultimate cost but must be kept to a minimum. An unnecessarily close specification for purity, dimensional tolerances etc. may result in a large increase in price. 

Although many materials have greater corrosion resistance than iron and steel, cost aspects favor the use of iron and steel. As a result, they are often used as materials of construction when it is known that some corrosion will occur. If this is done, the presence of iron salts and discoloration in the product can be expected, and periodic replacement of the equipment should be anticipated. 

Costs of the active materials and, in the case of D/A-systems, of the solvent/ electrolyte system, are for any practical case extremely important, for they are proportional to the charge to be stored. Cost aspects in batteries are comprehensively treated in [477]. The specific cost per Ah is reduced at high cycle numbers. Thus good cyclability is important, too. Graphite, H2SO4, or, with some restrictions, carbon blacks and carlmnaceous materials are inexpensive materials. PANI is an inexpensive ICP, but this does not generally apply for all other ICPs as erroneously stated in the literature [562, 563]. The pure material costs for a lead-acid battery are below 4 DM/ kWh. But it is nearly impossible to meet this cost level in the case of a polyacetylene battery, for the polymer should then be as cheap as < 0.3 DM/kg. 

Preliminary analysis suggests that CCRO processes are more energy-efficient than is distillation. However, the overall feasibility of CCRO as an alternative or adjunct to distillation for producing high-purity ethanol also depends on the capital costs associated with the process. The capital cost aspect has not been considered at present because membranes with substantially better performance will be required to make such an analysis meaningful. 

The following subsections will focus on the environmental assessment along the life cycle of products. Some aspects of cost aspects and social sustainability will briefly be addressed as well. Especially regarding social aspects, several approaches have aheady been presented by different research groups. However, methods are still under development. It can be expected that reliable life cycle decision support in social working environment issues will be available and practice-proven from about 2010 or 2011 onwards. 

Abstract This chapter is devoted to the state of the art of the most important aspects of high temperature ceramic air separation membranes for oxygen production and oxidation processes. Aiternative technologies, operational principle, fields of application, energy efficiency and cost aspects, materials science, module design, and sealing will be discussed. 

Besides cost aspects, the enviroiunental aspects of the process should be analyzed at as early a stage as possible. For example, eco-eflidency analysis (Figure 6.1-7) can be used to analyze the process from the viewpoints of cost and the environment. The aim is to obtain a clear depiction of the economic and ecological influences during the entire lifetime of a product, so that investment decisions can choose the alternative with the best long-term perspective [Kircherer 2001, Gartner 2000]. 

The use of (salty) buffers is large, which is very undesirable with respect to environmental as well as cost aspects. 

The question many economists would tend to ask could be phrased which is the most cost-effective way to reach environmental objectives, and to what extent is organic farming part of such a solution A physical benefit measurement that does not include the cost aspect can of course not give an answer to that question. However, the findings can be interpreted in a way that organic farming is at least among the candidates to be examined further for a cost-effective solution. 

The most costly aspect of energy is unavailability. When energy becomes unavailable, costs soar and adverse consequences result ... 

Life cycle cost assessment (LCCA) Systematic process for evaluating the life cycle cost of a product or service by identifying environmental consequences and assigning measures of monetary value to those craisequences (Warren and Weitz 1994 Bennett and James 1997). LCCA is a term that highlights the costing aspect of life cycle assessment (LCA) (Spitzer et al. 1993) Adding cost information to LCA... 

DriUing jar performance testing and stuck-pipe databases as described is the basis for the addressed selection problem. Other aspects are also of relevance for the decision-making, including cost and various quality aspects that extend beyond the physical performance measures addressed above reliability, durability, serviceabihty, aesthetics and conformance to standards (Montgomery, 1997). For this specific case we will focus on the physical performance measures and the cost aspect. 

In fact, regulatory authorities responsible for pharmaceuticals and medical devices more commonly request electronic registration documents, and it can be predicted that there will be no more traditional paper filings in the near future. First, for competitive reasons (time to market), and second due to time and cost aspects, because the electronic versions of registration documents allow the authorities representatives to copy and paste operations, search the documents, as well as analyze and integrate data by programs of the authorities. 

Al-Sahali, M. Ettouney, H. 2007, Developments in thermal desalination processes Design, energy, and costing aspects. Desalination 214, 227-240. [11] Kakac, S. Liu, H. 2002, Heat exchanchers selection, rating and thermal design, CRC Press, Florida. 

This approach will enable the man in charge of maintenance to detect any unusual trends, to look for the causes of these and, if necessary, to take remedial action Although the problems of costing - of whatever kind - belong to the sphere of industrial management, it is nevertheless important that the plant engineer should be alive to the cost aspect, because the two aspects of plant operation — the technical and the economic - must always be sensibly geared to each other. 

The second cost aspect addresses the manner in which a Pb-free capabihty is to be implemented on the factory floor. Specifically, the decision must be made whether to have separate Sn-Pb and Pb-free solder assembly lines or to mix the two technologies using the same assembly equipment. Critical factors include capital costs, factory floor space, infrastructure required to prevent inadvertent mixing of technologies, and projected product volumes. It is preferred to separate the two assembly capabilities physically. This separation is not limited to the actual machines, but also includes support functions such as solder material storage and component inventory control in order to prevent the use of the wrong solder or components and circuit boards with incorrect finishes. The extent of this separation of capabUities wiU determine the... 

The permeation of methanol through the membrane from the anode to the cathode (cross-over) represents a source of severe performance loss. The combined reaction of methanol and oxygen on the cathodic platinum catalysts (or platinum-based alloys) leads to a mixed potential formation that reduces the maximum achievable potential considerably by up to 200 mV. Two strategies are followed to circumvent this phenomenon. On the one hand the general avoidance of methanol permeation through the membrane allows the use of standard catalysts. The other strategy is the use of methanol-tolerant catalysts for the cathode of DMFCs these materials are characterized by a complete inactivity towards methanol, which does not react on these catalyst surfaces. For the development of methanol-tolerant catalysts, several prerequisites have to be fulfilled to obtain competitive products the new material not only has to be as active as a comparable catalyst (platinum-based) but also the stability and cost aspect have to be considered. Recently, selenium-modified rathenium particles (RuSe ) were found to be a suitable alternative to platinum-based alloys where the addition of selenium increases the activity of pure rathenium particles to shift these catalysts in a competitive regime. ... 

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