Cadmium environmental exposure

A negative correlation was found between PbB and systolic pressure in Belgian men in the Cadmibel study (a cross-sectional population study of the health effects of environmental exposure to cadmium) (Staessen et al. 1991). In this study, blood pressure and urinary cation (positive ions found in the urine, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium) concentration data were obtained from 963 men and 1,019 women multiple stepwise regression analyses were conducted adjusting for age, body mass index, pulse... 

Staessen JA, Roels HA, EmeUanov D, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, Vangronsveld J, Fagard R. Environmental exposure to cadmium, forearm bone density, and risk of fractures prospective population study. Public Health and Environmental Exposure to Cadmium (PheeCad) Study Group. Lancet 1999 353(9159) 1140-4. 

NawrotT, Plusquin M, Hogervorst J, Roels HA, Cells H,Thijs L, Vangronsveld J, Van Hecke E, Staessen JA. Environmental exposure to cadmium and risk of cancer a prospective population-based study. Lancet Oncology 2006 7 119-126. 

Aoshima K, Iwata K, Kasuya M. Environmental exposure to cadmium and effects on human health. Part 2. Bone and mineral metabolism In inhabitants of the cadmium-polluted JInzu River basin In Toyama Prefecture. Jpn J Hyg (In Japanese) 1988 43 864-871. 

Roels HA, Lauwerys RR, Buchet JP, Bernard A. Environmental exposure to cadmium and renal function of aged women in three areas of Belgium. Environ Res 1981 24 117-130. 

Lauwerys R, Amery A, Bernard A, Bruaux P, Buchet JP, Claeys F, De Plaen P, Ducoffre G, Fagard R, LIjnen P, Nick L, Roels H, Rondia D, Saint-Remy A, Sartor F, Staessen J. Health effects of environmental exposure to cadmium objectives, design and organization of the Cadmibel study a cross-sectional morbidity study carried out in Belgium from 1985 to 1989. Environ Health Perspect 1990 87 283-289. 

A large number of ubiquitous environmental pollutants are very toxic to the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis when administered at high (greater than environmental) levels. To study low level effects on the HPT axis, laboratory animals were administered a mixture of 16 organochlorine pesticides and other chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals, all at levels similar to those found environmentally, so as to simulate environmental exposure. The chemicals included DDT (6.91), HCB (5.73), TCDD (6.80), PCBs (6.29), methoxychlor (5.08), endosulfan (3.83), heptachlor (6.10), hexachlorocyclohexane (3.80), dieldrin (5.40), aldrin (6.50), mirex (7.18), several chlorinated benzenes (2.84-3.44), cadmium (-1.65), and lead (1.35). Effects were measured by monitoring thyroid activity. The study found that this mixture of environmental pollutants was toxic and can alter HPT physiology in sexually mature malesJ50 ... 

Hovinga ME, Sowers M, Humphrey HEB. 1993. Environmental exposure and lifestyle predictors of lead, cadmium, PCB, and DDT levels in Great Lakes fish eaters. Arch Environ Health 48(2) 98-104. 

Other rural populations in Japan have been similarly affected, particularly communities living in the cadmium polluted areas of the Ishikawa and Akita Prefectures. In all cases, those individuals with itai-itai disease or who had severe renal dysfunction as a result of environmental exposure to cadmium have a distinctly poor life expectancy. 

Palmer, C.D., Lewis, M.E., Jr., Geraghty, C.M. et al. (2006) Determination of lead, cadmium and mercury in blood for assessment of environmental exposure a comparison between inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and atomic absorption spectrometry. Spectrochim Acta Part B, 61B (8), 980-990. 

Chronic Environmental Exposure Itai-itai disease (for details, see Part III, Chapter 6) was first reported in 1955 among the human population of Toyoma, Japan. Urinary cadmium levels were found to be high in affected patients. Studies showed that cadmium content was particularly high in rice, a staple food for this population. The source of cadmium was felt to be via water from the Kamiaha mine upstream from Toyama. It was concluded that cadmium played the most important role in the development of Itai-itai disease (Friberg et al. 1979). 

Hahn R and Manojlovic N (1985) Environmental exposure to cadmium and renal function of elderly women living in cadmium-polluted areas of the F.R.G. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 55 217-239. 

Future trends in trace element analysis will put even greater pressure on the need to provide unbiased determinations. Increasing interest in the role of trace elements in health and disease will provide the stimulus for the better provision of quantitative determinations on which important decisions are made (Centers for Disease Control, 1991 Moukarzel et al., 1992). Increased public awareness and legislation are likely to bring about substantial reductions in the currently acceptable levels of occupational and environmental exposure to some non-essential elements such as lead, cadmium and aluminium. Determinations that are made as part of the assessment of such exposure will need to be both carefully validated and reproducible over many years or decades (Braithwaite and Brown, 1988 Brown, 1991), which will have a serious impact on laboratory costs. However, reproducible trace element determination with a low bias in biological fluids represents the cornerstone of any proper understanding of the role of trace elements in human health and disease. 

Ewers, U., Brockhaus, A., Doigner, R., Freiere, I., Jermann, E., Siller-Winkerl, R., Hahn, R., and Manojiovio, N. (1985) Environmental exposure to cadmium and renal function of elderly women living in cadmium polluted areas of the Federal Republic of Germany. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 55 217-239. 

Benoff, S., A. Jacob, and TR. Hurley. 2000. Male infeitilily and environmental exposure to lead and cadmium. Hum. Reprod. Update 6(2) 107-121. 

Ellis K, Cohn S, and Smith T. (1985). Cadmium inhalation exposure estimates Their significance with respect to kidney and liver cadmium burden. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 15, 173-187. 

De Burbure, C., Buchet, J.-P., Leroyer, A., Nisse, C., Haguenoer, J.-M., Mutti, A., et al., 2006. Renal and neurologic effects of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in children Evidence of early effects and multiple interactions at environmental exposure levels. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 584—590. 

Feldman AL, Failla ML, Cousins RJ (1978) Degradation of rat liver metallothioneins in vitro. Biochim Biophys Acta 544 638-646 Ferm VH, Carpenter SJ (1968) The relationship of cadmium and zinc in experimental mammalian teratogenesis. Lab Invest 18 429-432 Frery N, Nessman C, Girard F, Lafond J, Moreau T, Blot P, Lellouch J, Huel G (1993) Environmental exposure to cadmium and human birthweight. Toxicology 79 109-118... 

Kazantzis G (1986) Cadmium sources, exposure and possible carcinogenicity. In O Neill IK, Schuller P, Fishbein L (eds) Environmental carcinogens selected methods of analysis, vol 8. I ARC, Lyon, France, pp 93-100 Kazantzis G (1987) Cadmium. In Fishbein L, Furst A, Mehlman MA (eds) Advances in modern toxicology, vol XL Princeton Scientific, Princeton, NJ, pp 127-143... 

The potential toxicity of many trace metals including aluminum, cadmium, mercuiy, lead (Pb), copper, zinc and arsenic is well-established. Among those trace metals posing a serious hazard to health, mercury, cadmium, and lead constitute the greatest risk from environmental exposure. ... 

Little is known of the effect on the lungs of environmental exposures other than smoking. There is some evidence that exposure to cadmium, coal and silida (Tornell 1946 Bexell and Edfeldt 1949 Terho and Lacey 1979) can cause emphysema, and the risk of developing COPD due to occupational exposure is greater when exposed to dust than to gas and fumes (Krzyzanowski et al. 1986 Xu et al. 1992). 

Cadmium in blood and in urine are used as parameters for assessing occupational and environmental exposure to cadmium. Cadmium in blood is a short term parameter, reflecting recent exposure to cadmium. Short time elevations of cadmium in blood may be caused by excessive exposure situations. After the end of exposure, there is a rapid decrease in the first stage, followed by a decrease that levels off, depending on accumulated body burden. After long term exposure, cadmium concentration in blood becomes more complex to interpret, as it reflects both the present and the long term exposure [1,2]. 

Using the ICP-MS and ICP-OES methods, cadmium present in urine and blood due to occupational or environmental exposure can be determined sensitively, specifically, and with little effort. Samples are usually prepared by digestion with acid [5-9] or dilution with acid [10-12]. An additional enrichment is achieved by extraction with organic solvents or by capillary micro-extraction [7,9,13]. Detection Emits for ICP-MS analysis in blood or urine are predominantly reported in the lower range from 0.007 pg/L to 0.1 pg/L (for details see Table 1). 

Lead and other heavy metals such as silver, copper, cadmium, lead and bismuth have been known to have toxic effects on humans and our environment since ancient time [3]. These metals have become mainstays in the electronic world in which we live. As a result, human and environmental exposure to these metals has increased significantly over the past several decades, leading to significant health concern and environmental degradation. Lead and other metals enter the environment and the human body through several routes, which environmental and health regulations seek to reduce or eliminate. 

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