Biopolymer, functional polymers

Production of all naturally occurring polymers in vivo is catalyzed by enzymes. Polymerizations catalyzed by an enzyme ( enzymatic polymerizations ) have received much attention as new methodology [6-11], since in recent years structural variation of synthetic targets on polymers has begun to develop highly selective polymerizations for the increasing demands in the production of various functional polymers in material science. So far, in vitro syntheses of not only biopolymers but also non-natural synthetic polymers through enzymatic catalysis have been achieved [6-11]. 

Cardiovascular-functional polymers cover almost all categories of synthetic polymers and large numbers of biopolymers. They are used to build the device bulk, act as surface-modifying additives [SMA], and also formulate tissue adhesives [11-17]. 

Related to ionic liquids are substances known as deep eutectic solvents or mixtures. A series of these materials based on choline chloride (HOCH2 CH2NMe3Cl) and metal chlorides, carboxylic acids or urea have been reported. The urea-choline chloride material has many of the advantages of better-known ionic liquids e.g. low volatility) but can be sourced from renewable feedstocks and is non-toxic and readily biodegradable. However, it is not an inert solvent and this has been exploited in the functionalization of the surface of cellulose fibres in cotton wool. Undoubtedly, this could be extended to other cellulose based materials, biopolymers, synthetic polymers and possibly even small molecules. 

Polyelectrolytes (polyanions or polycations) are an important class of functionalized polymers with charged groups attached to the chains [9-13]. The physicochemical behavior of these polymers is dominated by the attractive interactions between the fixed charges and counterions, and by the long-range repulsive interactions between the electric charges located on the macromolecular chains [63]. Electrostatic interactions between polymers and metal ions are found in many important biopolymers and... 

The mechanism of the cooperative interaction of these biopolymers and their interaction with the external stimuli are a major field of study for generating synthetic polymers that can mimic the cooperative behavior of biopolymers. These polymers can then be utilized as biomaterials and can be employed to interface with biological systems for various functions of a living cell. 

On the basis of structural resemblance to enzymes, various kinds of macromolecules were developed as artificial enzymes. These macromolecules are classified mainly into two categories modification of biopolymers and totally synthetic functional polymers. 

Polymer science has also been developing over this half century. Great progress has occurred in the field of functional polymers, biopolymers with concurrent advances in molecular design and molecular characterization. It can be expected that the ESR techniques will give valuable insight in the area of molecular characterization. It is well known that solid polymers have many kinds of structural heterogeneities which lead to phenomena like the distribution of relaxation times... 

T.C. Hunter and J.R. Ebdon, in Macromolecular Preprints 92, preprints from Functional Polymers and Biopolymers, RSC/ACS Conference, University of Kent (1992), pp. 101-102. 

As a polyester, PHB can partake in many of the hydrogen-bonding type of specific interactions with other functional additives that lead to partial miscibility and compatibility. For example, the miscibility of polyesters with chlorinated polymers, polyamides, polycarbonates, cellulose derivatives and other functional polymers is well documented,and PHB is no exception to this general observation. However, these interactions are dominated by the tendency to self-crystallize with exclusion of the additive to the amorphous phase. For example, an 80/20 melt compounded and injection-moulded sample of PVC/PHB polyblend appears initially to be exceptionally tough with the PHB acting as a polymeric plasticizer. The presence of the PVC retards but does not stop crystallization of the PHB at room temperature and the material eventually becomes brittle. Under extreme circumstances, the PHB phase can actually achieve almost 100% crystallinity within the blend, as determined by X-ray analysis and DSC. Thus, plasticized formulations and polyblends involving PHB itself are limited to relatively low levels of additive because only the minor amorphous phase of the biopolymer is involved in the interaction. Even so, some plasticizers have been proposed for PHB. ... 

Our interest is to develop MIEC block copolymers with microphase separated structures such that the electronic and ionic phases are in intimate contact at the few hundred angstrom level. We believe that such intimate contact between the two phases will result in functional polymers capable of very fast responses, e.g., in sensors and MEMS devices. A synthetic muscle functions by converting chemical energy into mechanical energy [5]. A biopolymer strip capable of carrying out this function consists of a polyethylene layer, a thin gold layer, and a polypyrrole layer immersed in an electrolyte solution. Oxidation of the polypyrrole results in... 

The content of this book has been planned to rejuvenate the vibrational spectroscopy of polymers. At present, the classes of polymeric materials are very many in number and range from classical bulk polymers of great industrial and technological relevance to highly sophisticated functional polymers which reach even the interest of photonics and molecular electronics. Also, the whole world of biopolymers requires great attention from spectroscopy. 

Polymers can be divided into two broad groups synthetic polymers and biopolymers. Synthetic polymers are synthesized by scientists, whereas biopolymers are synthesized by cells. Examples of biopolymers are DNA—the storage molecule for genetic information RNA and proteins—the molecules that facilitate biochemical transformations and polysaccharides—compounds that store energy and also function as structural materials. The structures and properties of these biopolymers are presented in other chapters. In this chapter, we will explore synthetic polymers. 

Audisio, G. Bolognesi, A. Catellani, M. Destri, S. Porao, W. Gloria, M. Proceedings of the International Corference on Functional Polymers and Biopolymers, Oxford, U.K., September 19-19th, 1986, p 119. 

In this section we briefly consider the osmotic pressure of polymers which carry an electric charge in solution. These include synthetic polymers with ionizable functional groups such as -NH2 and -COOH, as well as biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids. In this discussion we shall restrict our consideration... 

The consideration made above allows us to predict good chromatographic properties of the bonded phases composed of the adsorbed macromolecules. On the one hand, steric repulsion of the macromolecular solute by the loops and tails of the modifying polymer ensures the suppressed nonspecific adsorptivity of a carrier. On the other hand, the extended structure of the bonded phase may improve the adaptivity of the grafted functions and facilitate thereby the complex formation between the adsorbent and solute. The examples listed below illustrate the applicability of the composite sorbents to the different modes of liquid chromatography of biopolymers. 

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