Batteries electric cars

Of the 300 million cars in the United States, only a few thousand were highway capable electric vehicles and some of these were conversions. Most dealerships do not put much effort in marketing alternative fuel vehicles because of the limited demand. Battery electric cars suffered from their limited range and lack of charging stations. They were only marketed in a few states with very limited advertising. Even with this... 

One reason for optimism about fuel cell cars, in contrast to battery electric cars, is that major automakers have embraced the technology. Indeed, automakers are cooperating with governments to promote, develop,... 

The future use of lead may be decided by the resolution of an environmental paradox. Some markets for lead are being phased out because of environmental concerns, eg, the use of tetraethyllead as a gasoline additive. However, a 1990 State of California law and similar laws in nine eastern U.S. states require that 2% of new cars meet 2ero-emission standards in 1998. By 2003 this requirement rises to 10% of new vehicles. Zero emission vehicles are generally accepted to mean electric, ie, battery powered cars, and there is considerable research effort to bring suitable electric vehicles to market by 1998. 

Alternatives to coal and hydrocarbon fuels as a source of power have been sought with increasing determination over the past three decades. One possibility is the Hydrogen Economy (p, 40), Another possibility, particularly for secondary, mobile sources of power, is the use of storage batteries. Indeed, electric vehicles were developed simultaneously with the first intemal-combustion-cngined vehicles, the first being made in 1888. In those days, over a century ago, electric vehicles were popular and sold well compared with the then noisy, inconvenient and rather unreliable peU ol-engined vehicles. In 1899 an electric car held the world land-speed record at 105 km per hour. In the early years of this century, taxis in New York, Boston and Berlin were mainly electric there were over 20000 electi ic vehicles in the USA and some 10000 cars and commercial vehicles in London. Even today (silent) battery-powered milk delivery vehicles are still operated in the UK. These use the traditional lead-sulfuric acid battery (p. 371), but this is extremely heavy and rather expensive. 

Electric vehicle (EV) is an abbreviated term for battery electric vehicle, which is a vehicle that uses energy from a batteiy to operate an electric motor that rotates the wheels. Throughout the twentieth century, a wide array of electric cars, trucks, buses, bikes, and scooters have been developed. However, except for the golf cart and special delivery vehicles, none has experienced any sustained commercial success. 

New vehicles, propulsion systems, and fuels are on the horizon hybrid automobiles (combining an electric motor, batteries, and a gasoline or diesel engine), better electric cars, greater use of compressed natural gas (CNG) and propane for urban fleet vehi-... 

The demand for electrically operated tools or devices that can be handled independently of stationary power sources led to a variety of different battery systems which are chosen depending on the field of application. In the case of rare usage, e.g., for household electric torches or for long-term applications with low current consumption, such as watches or heart pacemakers, primary cells (zinc-carbon, alkaline-manganese or lithium-iodide cells) are chosen. For many applications such as starter batteries in cars, only rechargeable battery systems, e.g., lead accumulators, are reasonable with regard to costs and the environment. 

Batteries for such cells are tested in experimental electric cars and... 

A variety of primary zinc-air cell and batteries are designed with capacity ranging from 100 Ah to 3300 Ah, operating at nominal currents from 2 to 40A at temperatures in the range +40 -t- -40°C. Mechanically rechargeable zinc-air cell are also developed and tested in experimental electric cars and scooters. 

By the late 1990s, it was clear that only the big automakers could make the electric car really happen. But, these were the same companies that had disdained electric cars earlier. GM once sued California in the U.S. District Court in Fresno to block imposition of the state s zero-emissions rules. These regulations would require automakers to build thousands of electric vehicles using rechargeable storage battery technology. But, the auto industry contended that conventional, electric-powered cars were too expensive and too limited in range to be profitable. 

Some of these began their work with electric cars. In Germany Ferdinand Porsche, built his first car, the Lohner Electric Chaise, in 1898 at the age of 23. The Lohner-Porsche was a first front-wheel drive car with four-wheel brakes and an automatic transmission. It used one electric motor in each of the four wheel hubs similar to today s hybrid cars, which have both gas and electric power. Porsche s second car was a hybrid, with an internal-combustion engine driving a generator to power the electric motors in the wheel hubs. On battery power alone, the car could travel 38 miles. 

Electric cars have proved less attractive to the mass market. The worry of having to plug them in to recharge them is combined with the dread of coming to a sudden halt in an inconvenient place when the batteries run... 

Toyota and Honda have been experimenting with both methanol and metal-hydride storage of hydrogen. Honda has built several test cars, in 1999 a Honda FCX-V1 (metal-hydride hydrogen) and FCX-V2 (methanol) were tested at a track in Japan. The Ballard powered version-1 was ready, but proved to be a little sluggish and noisy. The other car suffered from a noisy fuel cell. Both Honda fuel cell test cars were built on the chassis of the discontinued EV Plus battery electric. Honda used a different and more aerodynamic body. 

The Myers NmG three-wheeled electric car has a top speed of 70 mph. It is a single seat, three-wheeled electric car that runs on 156 volts DC with thirteen 12-volt batteries in series. It has a 1350 pounds curb weight with a 30-60 mile range and a price of 15,000- l7,000. 

Cost is always a problem when vehicles are made in limited numbers since the parts will cost more. The lithium ion batteries used in Nissan s Altra EV were reported to cost close to six figures. Since electric cars sell for 30,000 or more, a lease can soften the cost of the vehicle. It also isolates the user from expensive battery replacements. Even these subsidized leases required an extra 100 or more in monthly payments compared to a more conventional vehicle. Leasing allows the manufacturers to keep control of the vehicle for repairs and recalls. As the technology changes, a lease keeps customers from having a 2-3 year vehicle that is out of warranty with needing obsolescent, expensive parts. 

Series hybrids are electric cars with support from a small ICE, where only the electric motor propels the vehicle. There is no mechanical link between the combustion engine and the wheels. The ICE drives a generator that produces electricity that either flows to the electric motor that turns the wheels, or to a battery for storage. When the car is running solely on batteries, the engine turns on after the batteries have drained to a certain level and begins to recharge them. 

Nevertheless, it must be taken into account that the development of hydrogen fuel cells also depends on how competitive technologies develop (for details see Chapter 7). If batteries for electric cars are invented that, e.g., have twice the energy density and... 

Manufacturers and researchers have attempted to power electric cars with rechargeable batteries, such as modified lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries. However, rechargeable batteries run down fairly quickly. The distance driven before recharging a battery may be 250 km or less. The battery must then be recharged from an external electrical source. Recharging the lead-acid battery of an electric car takes several hours. Cars based on a version of the nickel-cadmium battery can be recharged in only fifteen minutes. However, recharging the batteries of an electric car is still inconvenient. 

A new type of power supply for electric cars eliminates the need for recharging. A fuel cell is a battery that produces electricity while reactants are supplied continuously from an external source. Because reactants continuously flow into the cell, a fuel cell is also known as a flow battery. Unlike the fuel supply of a more conventional battery, the fuel supply in a fuel cell is unlimited. As in the combustion of gasoline in a conventional engine, the overall reaction in a fuel cell is the oxidation of a fuel by oxygen. 

Research the aluminum-air battery, and the sodium-sulfur battery. Both are rechargeable batteries that have been used to power electric cars. In each case, describe the design of the battery, the half-reactions that occur at the electrodes, and the overall cell reaction. Also, describe the advantages and disadvantages of using the battery as a power source for a car. 

Electricity can be used as a transportation fuel to power battery electric and fuel cell vehicles. Electric fuel is electricity that is used to directly power the vehicle. In a sustainable energy future, electricity will become the prime energy carrier. We now have to focus our research on electricity storage, electric cars and the modernization of the existing electricity irrfrastractrrre. 

The importance of lowering automobile emissions has already resulted in changes in car manufacturing. Electric cars, which were popular 100 years ago but fell by the wayside because they could not keep up with gasoline-powered cars, are making a comeback. Although battery-powered vehicles are useful for short, slow trips aroimd a crowded campus, for instance, they continue to be plagued by limited speeds and durations. Automobile manufacturers have alleviated these problems by com-... 

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