Apis species

There are fewer reports in the literature on the impact of pyrethroids on non-Apis species, although one review is available that focuses on species in North America [77], Tasei gives examples of studies conducted on Nomia melanderi (alkali bee),... 

Sting glands, whose exact location in the basal apparatus is unknown, produce an alarm pheromone that is stored in a setose membrane connecting the second valvifers (oblong plates) in workers of all Apis species (summarized in Maschwitz and Kloft, 1971 Gary, 1974 Michener, 1974). 

Table 14.6 Volatile compounds identified in extracts of the sting apparatus of Apis species...

Sugar secretions collected and stored in honeycomb by Apis mellifera L., and other Apis species (Family Apidae). A thick, sympy, transparent liquid, honey is extracted from bee hives, then strained through a sieve and allowed to sit in settling tanks for 24 h to allow... 

Species Apis Bombus Vespula D. media V.crabro P. dominulus M. pilosula S. invicta 1 Prugosus F. rufa ... 

Nielsen J. Haeberli G Hymenoptera venom allergy analysis of double positivity to honey bee and Vespula venom by estimation of IgE antibodies to 38 species-specific major allergens Api ml and Ves v5. Allergy 2009 64 543-548. 

Since the initial report of the pH responsive CHEMFET in 1970, CHEMFET s for other species such as Ca , Na", and penicillin have been descril d. In addition, some of these devices have been tested for in vivo or on-line continuous whole blood monitoring. While problems associated with mass production of the more complex CHEMFET s such as those employing enzymes (for example, with the penicillin CHEMFET) have not yet been fully solved, the technology for mass production of the relatively simple pH CHEMFET is api rently now available and problems noted with early devices attributable to irreversible SiO changes and... 

LC-tandem MS was recently used for polymer/additive characterisation. In cases of soft ionisation processes (e.g. ESI, APCI, etc.), MS/MS is often necessary to confirm the ionic species. QITMS has the potential to improve the detection limits for organotin analysis compared to QMS. HPLC-UV and LC-API-MS/MS have been employed for the characterisation of the products of photodegradation of benzotriazole-based UV absorbers (Tinuvin P/328/900) under mild conditions [642]. Among the photoproducts identified... 

Mass spectrometry can be specific in certain cases, and would even allow on-line QA in the isotope dilution mode. MS of molecular ions is seldom used in speciation analysis. API-MS allows compound-specific information to be obtained. APCI-MS offers the unique possibility of having an element- and compound-specific detector. A drawback is the limited sensitivity of APCI-MS in the element-specific detection mode. This can be overcome by use of on-line sample enrichment, e.g. SPE-HPLC-MS. The capabilities of ESI-MS for metal speciation have been critically assessed [546], Use of ESI-MS in metal speciation is growing. Houk [547] has emphasised that neither ICP-MS (elemental information) nor ESI-MS (molecular information) alone are adequate for identification of unknown elemental species at trace levels in complex mixtures. Consequently, a plea was made for simultaneous use of these two types of ion source on the same liquid chromatographic effluent. 

In addition to complexes of the type, trans-[Tc02(pyr)2]+ (pyr pyridine or imidazole), various species, such as Jrans-[TcO(RO)X2(pyr)2] (R CH3 or CH3CH2 X Cl or Br) were detected in alcohol. Further complicated mixed-valence species, [X2(pyr)3Tc-0-Tc(pyr)2X3] and [X(pyr)4TcO Tc(pyr)X4], appeared on long standing or heating in pyridine [44,45]. Rather peculiar features were found in the substitution reaction of trans-[Tc02(py)4] + with 4-aminopyridine (apy) in mixtures of methanol and toluene in the presence of excess pyridine ([py] — 0.14 M) [46]. Its rate was expressed as... 

Flowers of some orchids mimic both the appearance and sex pheromone of virgin females of certain species of bees or wasps. This sexual deception results in pollination by male hymenoptera that would not normally visit flowers. Japanese honey bee drones (Apis cerana japonica) cluster on the oriental orchid (Cymbidiumpumilum) while on their mating flights [ 134]. By comparing volatile profiles of orchids and the female hymenoptera they mimic, or by GC-EAD and GC-MS analysis of orchid volatiles, several compounds have been identified that may mediate this attraction for the solitary bee Andrena nigroaenea [135, 136] and the scoliid wasp Campsoscolia ciliata [135]. 

Adverse effects of fenvalerate on survival of terrestrial arthropods were observed at 0.002 to 0.015 pg whole-body topical application, O.llkg/ha aerial application, 5.4 mg/kg in the soil, 50 mg/kg in the diet, and 1.4 g/ant mound (Table 20.4). Synthetic pyrethroids are more effective in biological systems at low temperatures. The relative sensitivity of insects when compared with mammals is attributed in part to this negative temperature coefficient. Thus, warm-blooded animals are less affected than insects and other poikilotherms (Klaassen etal. 1986). Fenvalerate, for example, showed a negative correlation between temperature and toxicity to crickets (Acheta pennsylvanicus), being up to 1.9 times more toxic at 15°C than at 32°C (Harris etal. 1981). A similar case is made for honey bees (Apis mellifera) (Mayer et al. 1987) and for many species of aquatic invertebrates and fish (Mayer 1987). 

Non-ionic silicone surfactants such as M2D-C3-0-(E0)n-CH3 (1), are thus detectable by API-MS methods as adducts with NH4, Na+ and K+ cations as shown in Fig. 2.8.3 [29]. Minor [M + H]+ adducts for M2D-C3-0-(E0)n-H (2) have been observed, although, in the case of M2D-C3-0-(E0)n-CH3 these were not detected even with the addition of acidic media. Only singly charged species of M2D-C3-0-(EO) —Me (n 3-16) were observed for all cone voltages [29], as is consistent with that expected for the polyethylene glycol (PEG) oligomeric distribution [37,38],... 

For highly potent APIs, profound effects can occur at low ng levels, the adverse effect of ethynylestradiol on fish populations is one example [107]. Another example is the development of resistant bacterial strains induced by the release of antibiotics into the environment [112, 113]. Dome et al. [114] concluded that fluoxetine, ibuprofen, diclofenac, propranolol and metoprolol exhibit relatively high acute toxicity to aquatic species. In addition, due to the inherent properties of these chemicals, pharmacodynamic effects were observed in the heart rate of Daphnia magna for the (3-blockers propranolol and metoprolol. 

The most damning evidence of APIs impact on wildlife comes from smdies on fish. Fluoxetine has been detected in tissues of fish species living in a municipal effluent at levels of 0.1 ng g Redox properties of some medicinal products can influence the oxidative metabolism in hepatocytes of rainbow trout leading to oxidative damage [115]. 

There are few monitoring studies on APIs in fish tissues however, multiple APIs were targeted in fish monitoring. The concentrations across tissues vary by many orders of magnitude as a function of the concentration of exposure, the species and specific tissue, with bile often serving to concentrate the most and the brain the least [107]. 

Developmental Effects. No studies were located regarding developmental effects in humans after inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to fuel oils. No developmental effects were noted in rat fetuses after inhalation exposure of the gestating female to home heating oil no. 2, fuel oil UNSP, or diesel fuel vapor (API 1979c, 1979g Bellies and Mecler 1983). Since negative effects were noted for several fuel oils in one species, it is possible that none of the fuel oils induce developmental effects by inhalation. However, additional data are needed to assess whether developmental effects would occur in other species, including humans, and/or by oral and dermal exposures. 

---