An Industrial Point of View

The chemical industry has been interested in high-throughput catalysis since it started in the mid-1990s. Companies specialized in high-throughput like 

The main difference from academic catalyst preparation is that in industry only a limited number of unit operations are used and therefore, several highly sophisticated lab preparation techniques, unless they result in extraordinary catalysts, cannot be applied in industry. Moreover, economic factors (costs of precursor materials) and ecological demands (avoid toxic and environmentally harmful waste) have to be considered. In fact, most catalysts in industry are manufactured by impregnation, precipitation, or ion-exchange techniques. Recently, Degussa has published some features of their high-throughput synthesis equipment illustrated by preparation of an advanced Pd-based vinyl acetate catalysts [109,118). 

Catalyst preparation by high-throughput technologies has become well adapted over the last decade. All unit operation with the exception of some solid handling operations can now be carried out on robotic platforms. Nevertheless, increasing the speed and throughput of preparation will remain an important 

Another, only recently addressed, aspect is to use high-throughput technologies, specifically stage II methods, in order to find out which 

Hagemeyer, P. Strasser and J.A.F. Volpe), WUey-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, pp. 271-98. 

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The potential practical capabilities of the described learning methodologies, and their attractive implementational features from an industrial point of view, were illustrated through the presentation of a series of case studies with both real-world industrial and simulated operating data. 

Additionnally, we show that the PG activity of the SCPP strain is regulated. It is stimulated by polyglacturonic acid concentrations similar to the ones seen in various fruit juices. On an industrial point of view, this induction would be diminished by the elevated glucose concentrations found in these fruit juices when compared to the pectin concentrations. Basal activities would be sufficient to eliminate all pectins and obtain juice stabilization. It would also have been interesting to study the effect of glucose concentrations of 15% and 20% (concentrations found in fruit juices, beers and ciders) on the PG activity of the SCPP strain. 

Arguing from an industrial point of view, Worz et al. list three basic tasks which an industrial reactor has to fulfil [110-112]. 

Synthesis of optically pure compounds via transition metal mediated chiral catalysis is very useful from an industrial point of view. We can produce large amounts of chiral compounds with the use of very small quantities of a chiral source. The advantage of transition metal catalysed asymmetric transformation is that there is a possibility of improving the catalyst by modification of the ligands. Recently, olefinic compounds have been transformed into the corresponding optically active alcohols (ee 94-97%) by a catalytic hydroxylation-oxidation procedure. 

The low-substituted hydroxyethylcellulose which, like methyl- and ethylcellulose, is soluble in alkali, particularly when cooled, has much to recommend it from an industrial point of view. It can be formed by the action of only small quantities (0.25 to 0.5 moles) of ethylene oxide on alkali cellulose.47 The reaction product need not be isolated since there are no salts formed, but may be diluted with water or weak alkali to give a spinning solution. The product should therefore be quite cheap. Preparation and properties of hydroxyethylcellulose have been discussed by Schorger and Shoemaker.47... 

As the hydrogenation of substituted dehydrophenylalanines is important from an industrial point of view, and the substrates are easily accessible, some phosphoramidites have been screened against a series of these substrates. According... 

Generally, the imine substrates are prepared from the corresponding ketone and amine and are hydrogenated as isolated (and purified) compounds. However, reductive animation where the C = N function is prepared in situ is attractive from an industrial point of view, and indeed there are some successful examples reported below [18, 19]. It is reasonably certain that most catalysts described in this chapter catalyze the addition of H2 directly to the C=N bond and not to the tautomeric enamine C = C bond, even though enamines can also be hydrogenated enantioselectively. 

The studies discussed above deal with highly dispersed and therefore well-defined rhodium particles with which fundamental questions on particle shape, chemisorption and metal-support interactions can be addressed. Practical rhodium catalysts, for example those used in the three-way catalyst for reduction of NO by CO, have significantly larger particle sizes, however. In fact, large rhodium particles with diameters above 10 nm are much more active for the NO+CO reaction than the particles we discussed here, because of the large ensembles of Rh surface atoms needed for this reaction [28]. Such particles have also been extensively characterized with spectroscopic techniques and electron microscopy we mention in particular the work of Wong and McCabe [29] and Burkhardt and Schmidt [30], These studies deal with the materials science of rhodium catalysts that are closer to the ones used in practice, which is of great interest from an industrial point of view. 

The potential health effects of anthocyanins and flavonols has stimulated much research in this area but, in view of the chemical complexity of the plant extracts, we are a long way from determining the chemical compounds responsible for the wide variety of claims. Regardless, a colorant with associated health benefits is a very desirable situation from an industry point of view. This is a very active research area. 

Analogously, the use of m-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA) or the in situ formation of peroxy acids by means of a sacrificial aldehyde (typically benzaldehyde plus molecular oxygen as a source of perbenzoic acid [20, 21]) are not viable processes, from an industrial point of view, because of the very poor atom efficiency and the huge formation of benzoic acids as side products. 

Even aliphatic hydrocarbons are susceptible to oxidative carbonylation. From an industrial point of view, the most important process concerns the direct conversion of methane into acetic acid. This transformation has been achieved with Rh(III)-based catalysts using oxygen as the oxidizing agent [149-153], and it is still object of investigations aimed at developing more efficient catalytic systems working under mild conditions. 

The direct conversion of alcohols and amines into carbamate esters by oxidative carbonylation is also an attractive process from an industrial point of view, since carbamates are useful intermediates for the production of polyurethanes. Many efforts have, therefore, been devoted to the development of efficient catalysts able to operate under relatively mild conditions. The reaction, when applied to amino alcohols, allows a convenient synthesis of cyclic urethanes. Several transition metal complexes, based on Pd [218— 239], Cu [240-242], Au [243,244], Os [245], Rh [237,238,246,247], Co [248], Mn [249], Ru [224,250-252], Pt [238] are able to promote the process. The formation of ureas, oxamates, or oxamides as byproducts can in some cases lower the selectivity towards carbamates. 

From an industrial point of view, homogeneous catalysis has significant advantages concerning selectivities and due to mild reaction conditions [47]. In fact, there is only a limited munber of processes established in industrial applications because of the disadvantageous separabihty of the catalyst from substrate and product. A possible and convenient solution for this limitation can be the application of supercritical carbon dioxide as part of a reaction system due to the following ... 

From an industrial point of view, it is remarkable that the introduction of the polyether moiety allows the separation of the products and the reuse of the catalyst without any loss of activity and selectivity. For the development of technical processes, this aspect may lead to a facile downstream processing of the crude product. 

This development towards an ecologically and-from an industrial point of view—economically less critical catalytic system based on thermomorphic liuorous catalysts broadens the toolbox of the industrial research chemist and should be taken into consideration in future developments of chemical... 

For an assessment of enantioselective catalysis from an industrial point of view, see Blaser, H.U., Pugin, B. and Spindler, F. (2005). Journal of Molecular Catalysis A-Chemical, 231,1. 

From an industrial point of view, not only the high-molecular-weight linear polyesters are of interest. Also, a series of low-molecular-weight linear or branched polyesters (Example 4-1) find application in surface coating systems (alkyd resins), as coreactants in unsaturated polyester resins (Example 4-8), or in polyurethane foams (Examples 5-28 and 5-29). 

At present, the fastest degradation rate was observed at 80°C, with 5 g L 1 of Ti02 and a DOC0 of 4500ppm (nondiluted stock solution), and the whole organic matter contained in the reaction system could be mineralized. However, this degradation rate is still relatively slow from an industrial point of view (vide supra). 

One group of researchers has presented the phase-behaviour of their system. They conclude that their system was operated under two-phase conditions because, from an industrial point of view, the pressure required to form a single-phase system becomes too expensive [24]. 

As 2-chloro-l,l,l-trifluoroethane (HCFC-133b) and 2,2-dichIoro-l,l,l-trifluoroethane (HCFC-123b) are industrially produced CFC alternatives, the original academic oxidative reaction to produce them is now of technical importance 7 a thermal oxidation method for 2.2-dichloro-l,1,l-trifluoroethane that is attractive from an industrial point of view has been developed7 and high yields of trifluoroacetic acid were obtained in a continuous process in addition, minor products were characterized. The acid is formed by continuous hydrolysis of the reaction mixture.7... 

From an industrial point of view, the applications of nitric acid in inorganic chemistry can be divided into oxidations1 and nitrations2,3 ... 

In practice, the effect of the additives could easily be overcome by calibrating the sensor in the presence of the additives. This means that the sensor needs to be calibrated in the bleaching solution of the process, which is favourable from an industrial point of view since it is not necessary to remove the sensor from its working environment and no standard solutions need to be made or bought. In the next part, it is explained how this calibration needs to be done. 

Mertsch, K., and J. Maas. 2002. Blood-brain barrier penetration and drug development from an industrial point of view. Curr Med Chem—Central Nervous System Agents 2 187. 

The impact properties of acrylate networks used in optical lenses have been widely investigated, mainly from an industrial point of view. Due to internal stresses which develop during the reaction, the cure schedule and the heating and cooling rates have to be carefully adjusted. The structural complexity of these networks does not allow us to obtain correlations of the observed impact strength values (Matsuda et al., 1998). 

From an industrial point of view, this model is able to predict and study the influence of the operating parameters on the filling ratios or the residence times for example. The model can be used for the design (steady state) and the control (transient phase) of rotating kilns. 

Carbocyclic brighteners gained new impetus after 1959, when the trialkylphos-phite-activated ethylenation process developed by Homer became available [27], This process, which features a high yield and high selectivity for the E isomers needed for optical brighteners, is extremely interesting from an industrial point of view. The principal products are distyrylarenes and divinylstilbenes, which have retained their importance to the present day. 

The important fact about HDN from an industrial point of view is the higher consumption of H2 compared to the classical HDS treatment of... 

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