A Historical Perspective

Also at the turn of the 20th century, the electronic processing of electrical energy, 

Arguably the first single molecule spectroscopic measurement was made by Rotman in the 1960s [4] in which a single enzyme was detected indirectly through its reaction products. However, Hirschfeld [5,6] was probably the first to make direct measurements with single molecule sensitivity when he demonstrated the detection of an individual antibody molecule, albeit labelled with 100 fluorophores One can argue that his is not the seminal work but 

The importance of oxyanion holes in enzymes was first discovered in chymot-rypsin by David Blow and co-workers and in subtihsin by Jo Kraut and co-workers [39]. In these enzymes, a tetrahedral intermediate is generated after nucleophilic attack of a deprotonated serine side chain on the peptide carbonyl group. It was recognized from the begirming that the geometry of the active site complexes was possibly better complementary to the tetrahedral intermediate than to the planar peptide substrate [40]. 

oxyanion holes were also discovered in other proteases, such as the cysteine protease papain, and in esterases and lipases, enzymes capable of esterification or ester hydrolysis. Interestingly, in these esterases, sometimes up to three hydrogen bond donors can be located within 3 A of the carbonyl oxygen atom, whereas such triple hydrogen bonding motifs have not yet been found in the proteases. 

Serine proteases, hydrolyzing a peptide bond Nucleophile 1st NH 2nd NH 3rdNH NH OH  

Streptomyces scabies esterase (lESC) [53] Serl4 Serl4 Gly66 Asnl06 ND2  

Acetylcholinesterase (2AGE) [54, 55] Ser200 Ala201 Glyll8 Glyll9  

The study of minimal surfaces arose naturally in the development of the calculus of variations. The problem of finding the surface forming the smallest area for a given perimeter was first posed by Lagrange in 1762, in the appendix of a famous paper that established the variational calculus [8]. He showed that a necessary condition for the existence of such a surface is the equation 

Zy denote partial derivatives. The partial differential equation for a surface is then  

Lagrange pointed out that the plane would be a trivial solution to the equation but made no further investigations to see what other possibilities existed. 

In 1744 Euler discovered the catenoid, the first non-planar minimal surface. This surface is readily realised by a soap film, spanning coaxial circular bounding wires. The film shrinks under the action of its surface tension, forming the minimal surface (Fig. 1.13). 

The link between curvature and minimal surfaces was made by Meusnier in 1776 [9]. He proved that eq. (1.16) implies that the mean curvature is zero everywhere on a minimal surface. In his own words la surface de moindre Hendue entre ses limites a cette propriete, Cfue chaqtie element a ses deux rayons de Courbure de signe contraire egaux . 

Nitrogen Supply and Forest Productivity in a Landscape Perspective Hypotheses..228 

Interactions between Hydrochemistry, N Dynamics, and Plants at Betsele—A 

The title of this chapter may sound odd to a chemist, as one may rightly ask if N is not a chemical element like others in the context of hillslope hydrochemistry. I will argue here, however, that N is different from other nutrient elements in many ways, and especially so because (a) it is in general not derived by weathering of minerals, (b) its supply and dynamics are under particularly strong biological control, and (c) its availability often exerts a strong and direct control on primary productivity. This, in turn, means that we should also ask what factors (or factor) control(s), and interact(s) with, the availability of N (e.g., Cole and Heil, 1981 Vitousek and Howarth, 1991). 

This chapter focuses on the controls on plant productivty in Fennoscandian boreal forests, but the discussion may well be applicable to larger areas of temperate forests developed on young glacial till soils and sediment soils. 

That N can limit production in temperate forests was first revealed through experiments conducted by Mitchell and Chandler in the 

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E. J. Dowd, W. M. Sheffer, and G. E. Addison, "A Historical Perspective on the Euture of Catalytic Oxidation of VOCs," paper 92-109.03, 85th Jinnual Meeting of Air and Waste Management A.ssociation, Kansas City, Mo., June 21—26,1993. 

Regarding a historical perspective on carbon nanotubes, very small diameter (less than 10 nm) carbon filaments were observed in the 1970 s through synthesis of vapor grown carbon fibers prepared by the decomposition of benzene at 1100°C in the presence of Fe catalyst particles of 10 nm diameter [11, 12]. However, no detailed systematic studies of such very thin filaments were reported in these early years, and it was not until lijima s observation of carbon nanotubes by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) that the carbon nanotube field was seriously launched. A direct stimulus to the systematic study of carbon filaments of very small diameters came from the discovery of fullerenes by Kroto, Smalley, and coworkers [1], The realization that the terminations of the carbon nanotubes were fullerene-like caps or hemispheres explained why the smallest diameter carbon nanotube observed would be the same as the diameter of the Ceo molecule, though theoretical predictions suggest that nanotubes arc more stable than fullerenes of the same radius [13]. The lijima observation heralded the entry of many scientists into the field of carbon nanotubes, stimulated especially by the un-... 

From a historical perspective it is interesting to note that the Nozaki experiment was, in fact, a mechanistic probe to establish the intermediacy of a copper carbe-noid complex rather than an attempt to make enantiopure compounds for synthetic purposes. To achieve synthetically useful selectivities would require an extensive exploration of metals, ligands and reaction conditions along with a deeper understanding of the reaction mechanism. Modern methods for asymmetric cyclopropanation now encompass the use of countless metal complexes [2], but for the most part, the importance of diazoacetates as the carbenoid precursors still dominates the design of new catalytic systems. Highly effective catalysts developed in... 

Drews, J. (2000). Drag discovery A historical perspective. Science 287 1960-1964. 

Enikolopyan et al.til found that certain Co11 porphyrin complexes (eg. 87) function as catalytic chain transfer agents. Later work has established that various square planar cobalt complexes (e.g. the cobaloximes 88-92) are effective transfer agents.Ij2 m The scope and utility of the process has been reviewed several times,1 lt>JM ns most recently by Hcuts et al,137 Gridnev,1 3X and Gridnev and Ittel."0 The latter two references1provide a historical perspective of the development of the technique. 

The principal applications of mass transfer are in the fields of distillation, gas absorption and the other separation processes involving mass transfer which are discussed in Volume 2, In particular, mass transfer coefficients and heights of transfer units in distillation, and in gas absorption are discussed in Volume 2,. In this section an account is given of some of the experimental studies of mass transfer in equipment of simple geometry, in order to provide a historical perspective. 

The synthetic elaboration of cis-dioxygenated dienes has flourished in the past two decades and several total syntheses have beenaccomplishedutilizingthesechiral building blocks. Both substrate acceptance and applications in asymmetric synthesis have been comprehensively reviewed, also providing a historical perspective [220,223,224]. 

Irwing, A. (1997). Theories of burning. A case study using a historical perspective. School Science Review, 75(285), 31-38. 

Oprea TI, Davis AM, Teague SJ, Leeson PD. Is there a difference between leads and drugs A historical perspective. / Chem Inf Comput Sci 2001 41 1308-15. 

K. G. Everett and W.S. Deloach, Chemistry doctorates awarded to women in the United States, A historical perspective. J. Chem. Educ., 68 (1991) 545-547. 

A. K. Cheung, J. K. Leypoldt 1997, (The hemodialysis membranes a historical perspective, current state and future prospect), Sem. Nephrol., 17, 196-213. 

A. Historical Perspective Effect of the 1906 Act on Drug Product Distribution... 

As noted above, whole-cell MALDI-TOF MS was intended for rapid taxonomic identification of bacteria. Neither the analysis of specific targeted bacterial proteins, nor the discovery of new proteins, was envisioned as a routine application for which whole cells would be used. An unknown or target protein might not have the abundance or proton affinity to facilitate its detection from such a complex mixture containing literally thousands of other proteins. Thus, for many applications, the analysis of proteins from chromatographically separated fractions remains a more productive approach. From a historical perspective, whole-cell MALDI is a logical extension of MALDI analysis of isolated cellular proteins. After all, purified proteins can be obtained from bacteria after different levels of purification. Differences in method often reflect how much purification is done prior to analysis. With whole-cell MALDI the answer is literally none. Some methods attempt to combine the benefits of the rapid whole cell approach with a minimal level of sample preparation, often based on the analysis of crude fractions rather... 

DISCRIMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS BY PYROLYSIS MASS SPECTROMETRY FROM BURNING AMBITIONS TO COOLING EMBERS—A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE... 

Sandler M (1992). Development of anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs A historical perspective. In JM Elliot, DJ Heal and CA Marsden (eds), Experimental Approaches to Anxiety and Depression (pp. 1-8). John Wiley Sons, Chichester, UK. 

Drews JJ Drug Discovery A Historical Perspective. Science 2000 287 1960-1964. 

Subsequent chapters deal largely with developments in the theory of geometric phase and non-adiabatic coupling over the past 10 years, but the editors agreed with me that there would be some value in including a chapter on early contributions to the field, to provide a historical perspective. No doubt the choice of material will seem subjective to some. Others will find it redundant to repeat well-established results in an Advances volume, but this chapter is not... 

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