World Wars I and

In the period following World War I and during World War II, a wide variety of sulfur analogues of mustard were investigated and many potent vesicants were discovered. Each had two 2-chloroethyi groups attached to a sulfur atom. Examples of such compounds are... 

World War I and the interest in aviation gave rise to a rapid development of fluid mechanics and aerodynamics. This, in turn, gave a renewed... 

The introduction of the internal combustion engine in the late nineteenth century opened up an entirely new approach to combined heat and power. Rather than using the same fluid for the heat and power process as was the case with hot air and steam processes, the tremendous waste heat generated by the internal combustion process can easily be transformed into useful heat. Cogeneration applications using stationary engines were common in Europe prior to World War I and remain quite popular because the heat is relatively... 

When acids and bases are mixed, a neutralization reaction occurs. Not all acids and bases should be mixed, however. Bleach, which is a solution of sodium or calcium hypochlorite, for example, should never be mixed with any kind of acid because the resulting chemical reaction creates the deadly gas chlorine. Chlorine gas was used as a chemical weapon in World War I, and breathing it can destroy lung tissue. The lungs fill with fluid, and the unfortunate victim eventually dies by suffocation. 

Allies with 40 percent of their explosives during World War I, and, by the 1920s, the company controlled one of the world s biggest industrial empires. Du Pont family members were celebrities who lived like royalty in magnificent palaces. With noblesse oblige, they renovated 100 Delaware schools, paid old-age pensions to all qualified Delaware residents, and built a highway for the state. 

Ludwig Fritz Haber. The Poisonous Cloud Chemical Warfare in the First World War. Oxford Clarendon Press, 1986. An authoritative history of chemical warfare by Fritz and Charlotte Haber s son. Source for Ypres Haber s responsibility for poison gas his authoritarianism during World War I and failure of poison gas as weapon. 

The sulfur dioxide is recovered as sulfuric acid and reconverted to sodium sulfate. Alumina hydrate is precipitated from the sodium aluminate by carbon dioxide. The process has not become widely accepted because the product is contaminated by silica, but it was used in Belgium before and after World War I and in Germany in the 1920s and 1940s. 

Lynn believes the success of her recovery is due, in part, to the quality of her early life. Raised in Wisconsin at a time when farmers put manure, not synthetic chemicals, on their fields, she ate only organic foods because that was all there was. Her mother, a physiotherapist in World War I and keenly interested in health, raised her as a vegetarian, although she now eats meats. Lynn describes her mother as a forerunner of the holistic practitioner. 

Because of the outbreak of World War I and perhaps because of the delay in his receiving patents on coal hydrogenation, Bergius published nothing on his process until 1921. This is the first article along with American patents 1,342,790 June 8, 1929 (filed April 18, 1916) and 1,291,664, September 27, 1921 (filed April 18, 1916) in which Bergius discussed his continuous process. 

This chapter will examine the nature of project-research as it developed in the organization of chemical warfare research during World War I and will suggest that this model may have played a significant role in the attempts at increased organization of chemical research in the United States after the war, especially in the division of chemistry and chemical technology of the National Research Council. 

Merck patented MDMA and MDA in 1914, but World Wars I and II sidetracked any further research on the drugs. Interest in the two drugs was revived in the 1950s by the U.S. military, but never went further than the animal testing stage. 

Survey Graphic, Color Unfinished Business of Democracy, (Nov. 1942). Other issues devoted entirely to race include Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Minority Peoples in a Nation at War (Sept. 1942) Journal of Negro Education, The American Negro in World War I and World War II (Summer 1943) Journal of Educational Sociology, The Negro in the North during Wartime (Jan. 1944) and Race Relations on the Pacific Coast (Nov. 1945). 

These reforms produced significant effects, not the least of which was a general improvement in working conditions throughout major industries. Much remained to be done, however, particularly during and following the worldwide depression of the thirties and the disruptions of World Wars I and II, all of which slowed the potential for any rapid improvement. Indeed, as... 

The contamination of the environment by explosives, especially by nitroesters and nitroaromatics (NACs), is a worldwide environmental problem since enormous amounts of these compounds were produced during World War I and II. Most contaminated sites are located at ammunition factories and other places where these compounds were handled. This involved open detonation and burning of explosives at army depots, evaluation facilities, artillery ranges, and ordnance disposal sites (Rodgers and Bunce, 2001). 

The turn of the twentieth century ushered in a period in which a well-educated cohort of African American scientists began conducting research and publishing in peer reviewed journals. Most of the doctoral chemists careers were confined to historically black colleges and universities. However, conditions both in and out of the scientific community were slowly changing. Between World War I and just prior... 

However, synthetic fibers (cellulosic and noncellulosic) increased much more rapidly in importance, with cellulosics booming between World Wars I and II and noncellulosics dominating after World War II, while all that time cotton showed only a steady pace in comparison. The more recent competition between the various fibers in the United States is given in Fig. 17.1. Nylon was originally the most important synthetic (1950-1971) but polyester now leads the market (1971-present). For a few years (1970-1980) acrylics were third in production, but since 1980 polyolefins have been rapidly increasing. Polyolefins are now second only to polyester in synthetic fiber production. Cotton, being an agricultural crop, certainly demonstrates its variable production with factors such as weather and the economy. It is an up-and-down industry much more so than the synthetics. 

Because information on possible long-term effects of the other irritant chemicals used in the Edgewood tests is sparse, this chapter focuses on the effects of mustard gas and two lacrimators, CS and CN. Information on the potential long-term adverse effects of these chemicals is derived from several sources first, observation of long-term disabilities in soldiers who were exposed to a single (in most cases) toxic concentration of irritant during World War I and in persons exposed in peacetime accidents or riot-control procedures second, studies of morbidity in workers chronically exposed to chemical irritants during their manufacture and third, studies in which experimental laboratory animals were exposed to selected chemicals by topical application, injection, or aerosol inhalation. 

During the latter half of World War I and the early postwar years, there was serious concern that men poisoned by inhalation of chlorine, phosgene, and mustard (the three most common and deadly agents) would develop tuberculosis and cancer. Limited studies were begun, but it proved difficult to produce evidence to support the idea. Achard, Wilson and Mackintosh,Sergent and Haas,6 ... 

Aircraft bombs were introduced in World War I, and soon, various special purpose types were developed. Therefore, a color code was developed. Again each service (land and sea) of the major powers developed their own identification system consisting of colored bodies, colored bands, metal stampings and ink stencil markings... 

Between World War I and II, TNT replaced picric acid as the explosive of choice in munitions. It was also mixed with other compounds to produce more powerful explosives with unique characteristics. Amatol is a mixture containing between 40% and 80% ammonium nitrate and TNT. Pentolite is a mixture of PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) and TNT. Another common explosive mixture is RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) and TNT. RDX is an abbreviation for Royal Demolition Explosive. 

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