The importance of procedures

The importance of procedures Are the designer and the user on the same wavelength  

It is clear from what has been said earlier in this chapter that good competency-based training depends on good procedures. 

Writing good procedures as we have noted is particularly relevant in relation to competency-based training (CBT). This is because CBT focuses on acquiring or possessing the skills to perform a task property. This in turn involves the learning of appropriate procedures. The degree to which actual woik practices mirror procedures is a constant source of concern. Too literal adherence can unnecessarily slow up work -too slack and errors occur. 

Procedures describe what are known to psychologists as action sequences. Norman (see Further Reading at the end of this chapter) commented that surprisingly little is known about the nature of action sequences. 

In a further example, an electrician in a roof space must match lines of wiring to a mental model of the house electrical circuit. 

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The needs of the semiconductor industry have been one of the main driving forces to attain detection limits in the low parts-per-quadrillion level. Sector-based ICP-MS instruments are often used in a low-resolution mode to provide the very high sensitivities that are needed. Many of the elements of interest are below mass 80. Therefore, the use of reaction cells in ICP-MS instruments in order to reduce molecular ion signals and other background is likely to have a major impact on the analysis of materials used in the semiconductor industry. The importance of procedures for analysis of these materials with very low detection limits is so key to the commercial success of the semiconductor manufacturers that details of the ICP-MS-based methods may not be published. Those that are published may be modified somewhat from what is done in practice. 

The importance of procedures is well documented and emphasized by various consensus groups and government regulations. For example, OSHA investigations conclude that poorly conceived operational or maintenance procedures are among the rmderlying factors that contribute to or heighten the consequences of an accident. ... 

A vast amount of research has been undertaken on adsorption phenomena and the nature of solid surfaces over the fifteen years since the first edition was published, but for the most part this work has resulted in the refinement of existing theoretical principles and experimental procedures rather than in the formulation of entirely new concepts. In spite of the acknowledged weakness of its theoretical foundations, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method still remains the most widely used procedure for the determination of surface area similarly, methods based on the Kelvin equation are still generally applied for the computation of mesopore size distribution from gas adsorption data. However, the more recent studies, especially those carried out on well defined surfaces, have led to a clearer understanding of the scope and limitations of these methods furthermore, the growing awareness of the importance of molecular sieve carbons and zeolites has generated considerable interest in the properties of microporous solids and the mechanism of micropore filling. 

Representative Method The best way to appreciate the importance of the theoretical and practical details discussed in the previous section is to carefully examine the procedure for a typical precipitation gravimetric method. Although each method has its own unique considerations, the determination of Mg + in water and waste-water by precipitating MgNH4P04 6H2O and isolating Mg2P20y provides an instructive example of a typical procedure. 

The early immunoglobulin products prepared by cold-ethanol fractionation were found to be free from transmitting hepatitis infection (106,108) this was not the case with products prepared by alternative methods (109). Subsequentiy, some batches of intravenous immunoglobulin transmitted hepatitis infection (110), emphasizing the importance of estabHshing vaHdated procedures for dealing with potential viral contaminants (111). 

Specialty Epoxy Resins. In addition to bisphenol, other polyols such as aUphatic glycols and novolaks are used to produce specialty resins. Epoxy resins may also include compounds based on aUphatic, cycloaUphatic, aromatic, and heterocycHc backbones. Glycidylation of active hydrogen-containing stmctures with epichlorohydrin and epoxidation of olefins with peracetic acid remain the important commercial procedures for introducing the oxirane group into various precursors of epoxy resins. 

The importance of plume rise is that it determines the effective stack height, or the height at which most calculation procedures assume dispersion to initiate. The plume rise added to the actual height of the stack is known as the effective stack height, described by the following expression ... 

Approvals and Authorizations Appropriate delegations have been established, and authorities are cieariy established for approval of specific routine operations and non-routine or out-of-specification operations. Variance procedures are defined. Approval levels are commensurate with the importance of the task. Appropriate resources are authorized. 

An important issue in the writing of procedures is how much information is necessary for the process worker in order to minimize the likelihood of error. Too little may be inappropriate for an inexperienced process worker while too much may encourage a highly experienced worker not to use the procedure. It is obvious that the level of worker expertise and the criticality of the task will determine the level of description. This example shows how lack of detailed information can lead to errors of omission. 

The above factors also highlight the importance of updating the procedures frequently. There are many occasions where control loops are introduced m the plant without proper modification of the procedures, which means that the process worker will not be able to explain the behavior of the plant or imderstand the required intervention on his part. 

The analysis set out above demonstrates the importance of a comprehensive evaluation of the human aspects of a hazardous operation, from the point of view of identifying all contributory events and recovery possibilities. It also indicates the need for a complete evaluation of the operational conditions (procedures, training, manning levels, labeling, etc.) which could impact on these probabilities. 

Evaluation level change operators criteria for performance—enforce meaningful procedures—address work conditions and social content. Also it is necessary to change management s perception of the need for supervision and the importance of solvent charging. Obviously it is a failure of supervision to be imaware or to tolerate that valves were not reset after use. 

At C, change procedures to reflect actual performance, provide checklists, alter worker s perception of the importance and consequences of leaving valves open, and improve the supervision of procedures. Some form of lock system would be of benefit... 

Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are step-by-step job instructions which can help workers perform their jobs safely and efficiently. When the end users are involved in their design, SOPs can provide a basis for arriving at a method of work agreed-to by different shifts. In this sense, SOPs can be used to develop training programs and specify measures of competence. Because of the importance of SOPs in the work situation, a systematic framework is needed to enable the design of reliable procedures which are acceptable by the workforce. 

The importance of chemical syntheses of a-amino acids on industrial scale is limited by the fact that the standard procedure always yields the racemic mixture (except for the achiral glycine H2N-CH2-COOH and the corresponding amino acid from symmetrical ketones R-CO-R). A subsequent separation of the enantiomers then is a major cost factor. Various methods for the asymmetric synthesis of a-amino acids on laboratory scale have been developed, and among these are asymmetric Strecker syntheses as well. ... 

When close control of purity is essential it may be necessary to assemble the test specimens in a dry box under an inert atmosphere and to weld the containers shut under inert gas or vacuum before placing on test. With some environments even the small amount of oxygen and moisture adsorbed on the component surfaces will significantly affect the test results. In one laboratory this problem was eliminated by maintaining within the dry box a container of molten sodium at 250°C —a rather cumbersome procedure, but one which emphasises again the importance of purity. 

The importance of Heinrich Ritthausen s fundamental studies, 1862 to 1899, on analytical procedures for the determination of amino acids in proteins has been emphasized in the biographical sketches which have been presented by Osborne (210), Vickery (289), and Chibnall (47). It is of particular interest to note here the prediction made by Ritt-hausen about 1870 that the amino acid composition would prove to be the most adequate basis for the characterization of proteins. Ritthausen and Kreusler (230) were the first, in 1871, to determine amino acids derived from proteins, and some of the values which they found for aspartic and glutamic acids are given in Table III (cited by Chibnall, 47, and Vickery, 286). 

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