The History

In 1419, at the beginning of Portuguese explorations, Joao Gonsalves Zarco, Tristao Vaz Teixeira, and Bartolomeu Perestrelo discovered an island in the middle of the Atlantic and which they named Madeira. The three Captains had received special privileges from Infante D. Hen-rique (Henry, the Navigator) and immediately started to cultivate the lands with wheat, vines, and sugarcane (Stevenson, 2005). 

At first, all of them thrived, but today only wine continues to play an important role in the island s economy. Historical records in 1450 by the Venetian navigator, Alvise da Mosto, known as Luis de Cadamosto, show that Malvasia Candida was brought during the first years of colonization. Infante D. Henrique ordered that lands be planted with Malmsey, brought from Candia (the capital of Crete). Throughout the fifteenth century, vineyards expanded steadily. The consequence of this was an increasing in exports, but it is the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus that constitutes a landmark in the history of Madeira wine. 

Tales are told involving historical figures, in which the notoriety of Madeira wine abroad was already clear. It is said that, in 1478, George, Duke of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV, the King of England, when 

The association of Madeira with the United States is intimate. The Declaration of Independence, on 4th July 1776, was toasted by George Washington with a chalice of Madeira wine. It was the wine preferred by kings, emperors, and statesmen and served during the banquets of European Courts. Thomas Jefferson, and all the other Founding Fathers, greatly appreciated the most exquisite wines of the time, but preferred Madeira over all. 

The beginning of the nineteenth century was marked by an export boom, caused by the Napoleonic Wars. However, this was not to be a favorable century for Madeira wine. The postwar depression devastated European exports. 

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Ten years passed since the biggest radioactive catastrophe in the history of humanity happened at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. The Russian State medical dosimetric Register was founded after this catastrophe At present in the Register they keep a medical and radiation-dosimetric information about 435.276 persons. 

The idea that unsymmetrical molecules will orient at an interface is now so well accepted that it hardly needs to be argued, but it is of interest to outline some of the history of the concept. Hardy [74] and Harkins [75] devoted a good deal of attention to the idea of force fields around molecules, more or less intense depending on the polarity and specific details of the structure. Orientation was treated in terms of a principle of least abrupt change in force fields, that is, that molecules should be oriented at an interface so as to provide the most gradual transition from one phase to the other. If we read interaction energy instead of force field, the principle could be reworded on the very reasonable basis that molecules will be oriented so that their mutual interaction energy will be a maximum. 

Surface defects (Section VII-4C) are also influenced by the history of the sample. Such imperfections may to some extent be reversibly affected by processes such as adsorption so that it is not safe to regard even a refractory solid as having fixed surface actions. Finally, solid surfaces are very easily contaminated detection of contamination is aided by ultra-high-vacuum techniques and associated cleaning protocols [24]. 

The history of EM (for an overview see table Bl.17,1) can be interpreted as the development of two concepts the electron beam either illuminates a large area of tire sample ( flood-beam illumination , as in the typical transmission electron microscope (TEM) imaging using a spread-out beam) or just one point, i.e. focused to the smallest spot possible, which is then scaimed across the sample (scaiming transmission electron microscopy (STEM) or scaiming electron microscopy (SEM)). In both situations the electron beam is considered as a matter wave interacting with the sample and microscopy simply studies the interaction of the scattered electrons. 

The history of semiconductor devices can be traced back to tire paper of Braun, published in 1874, describing rectifying behavior of a contact [1], However, for many years semiconductors were considered too difficult a subject and tire science of semiconductors began only during World War IT... 

The history of tire diode laser illustrated in figure C2.16.11 shows tire interiDlay of basic device physics ideas and teclmology. A new idea often does not produce a better device right away. It requires a certain leap of faitli to see tire improvement potential. However, once tire belief exists, tire teclmology can be developed to demonstrate its validity. In tire case of diode lasers, tire better teclmology was invariably associated with improved epitaxial growtli. 

Bruel M 1998 The history, physics, and applications of the smart-cut process MRS Bull. 23 35, 1998... 

In addition to tire period-doubling route to chaos tliere are otlier routes tliat are chemically important mixed-mode oscillations (MMOs), intennittency and quasi-periodicity. Their signature is easily recognized in chemical experiments, so tliat tliey were seen early in the history of chemical chaos. 

The next significant development in the history of the geomebic phase is due to Mead and Truhlar [10]. The early workers [1-3] concenbated mainly on the specboscopic consequences of localized non-adiabatic coupling between the upper and lower adiabatic elecbonic eigenstates, while one now speaks... 

Nomenclature is the compilation of descriptions of things and technical terms in a special field of knowledge, the vocabulary ofa technical language. In the history of chemistry, a systematic nomenclature became significant only rather late. In the early times of alchemy, the properties of the substance or its appearance played a major role in giving a compound a name. Libavius was the first person who tried to fix some kind of nomenclature in Alckeinia in 1,597. In essence, he gave names to chemical equipment and processes (methods, names that are often still valid in our times. 

J. Lederberg, How DENDRAL was conceived and bom, in ACM Symposium on the History of Medical Informatics, National Library of Medidne, 1987. Later published in A History of Medical Informatics, B. I. Blum, K. Duncan (Eds.), Association for Computing, Machinery Press, New York 1990, 14-44. 

In an inelastic, time-independent (Stokesian) fluid the extra stre.ss is considered to be a function of the in.stantaneous rate of defomiation (rate of strain). Therefore in this case the fluid does not retain any memory of the history of the deformation which it has experienced at previous stages of the flow. 

Write an essay of approximately 2000 words on the history and the various definitions of the concept of resonance, resonance energy, and aromaticity. 

The strueture of quantum meehanies (QM) relates the wavefunetion E and operators F to the real world in whieh experimental measurements are performed through a set of rules (Dirae s text is an exeellent souree of reading eoneeming the historieal development of these fundamentals). Some of these rules have already been introdueed above. Here, they are presented in total as follows ... 

The development of theoretical organic chemistry was intimately entwined with the development of that particular aspect of it concerned with aromatic substitution the history of this twin growth has been authoritatively traced. Only the main developments, particularly as they affect nitration, will be noted here. 

A more detailed account of the history of organic nomenclature may be found in the article The Centen nial of Systematic Organic Nomenclature in the No vember 1992 issue of the Journal of Chemical Educa ton (pp 863-865)... 

A detailed discussion of the history structure and applications of natural rubber appears in the May 1990 issue of the Journal of Chemical Education... 

Let s begin by tracing the history of benzene its origin and its structure Many of the terms we use including aromaticity itself are of historical origin We 11 begin with the discovery of benzene... 

An entertaining account of the history of aspirin can be found in the 1991 book The Aspirin Wars Money Medi cine and 100 Years of Ram pant Competition by Charles C Mann... 

Our purpose in this introduction is not to trace the history of polymer chemistry beyond the sketchy version above, instead, the objective is to introduce the concept of polymer chains which is the cornerstone of all polymer chemistry. In the next few sections we shall introduce some of the categories of chains, some of the reactions that produce them, and some aspects of isomerism which multiply their possibilities. A common feature of all of the synthetic polymerization reactions is the random nature of the polymerization steps. Likewise, the twists and turns the molecule can undergo along the backbone of the chain produce shapes which are only describable as averages. As a consequence of these considerations, another important part of this chapter is an introduction to some of the statistical concepts which also play a central role in polymer chemistry. 

Throughout the history of the development of fats and oils, many wet chemical methods have been developed to assess the quaUty of the raw materials and products. As sophisticated instmmentation develops, many of the wet methods are being replaced. Particular attention is being given to methods that eliminate the use of solvents which cause an environmental disposal problem. Many in-line sensors are also being developed to allow corrections of critical parameters to be made more quickly in the process. 

Also of value is the study of the history of technology (24,25) that affords insights into the history of the development of civilization. The eadiest existing written records, treatises of crafts people and artists on the techniques and materials with which they worked, date back to medieval times (26—29). For prehistoric human activities, the record is in the objects which remain, and only through the study of these can knowledge in this regard be furthered. 

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