The Early History

Though there were fewer women science students at late 19th-century Oxford than at Cambridge or the London colleges, women were certainly to be found in mineralogy and astronomy at Oxford, as Janet Howarth noted Research-oriented professors 

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The penicillins are a class of compound having the general structure (1). Because of their unique effectiveness in the treatment of bacterial infections in humans, these compounds have been investigated intensively from the chemical, microbiological and clinical points of view since about 1940. The early history of these developments (see especially B-80MI51100, B-49MI51100) contains the following pivotal studies ... 

This book is primarily directed at professional materials scientists and engineers, and they have no urgent need to see themselves defined. Indeed, it would be perfectly reasonable to say about materials science what Aaron Katchalsky used to say about his new discipline, biophysics Biophysics is like my wife. I know her, but I cannot define her (Markl 1998). Nevertheless, in this preliminary canter through the early history of MSE, it is instructive to examine briefly how various eminent practitioners have perceived their changing domain. 

Many other parepistemes were stimulated by the new habits of precision in theory. Two important ones are the entropic theory of rubberlike elasticity in polymers, which again reached a degree of maturity in the middle of the century (Treloar 1951), and the calculation of phase diagrams (CALPHAD) on the basis of measurements of thermochemical quantities (heats of reaction, activity coefficients, etc.) here the first serious attempt, for the Ni-Cr Cu system, was done in the Netherlands by Meijering (1957). The early history of CALPHAD has recently been... 

More interesting, as regards future developments, are the eiforts now being made to dispense with opium as an intermediate in the production of morphine. The early history of experiments in the direct extraction of the alkaloid from poppy capsules and poppy straw has been recounted by Goris and by Wiiest and Frey. ... 

Whittle, Sir Frank. (1945), The early history of the Whittle jet propulsion engine, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 152,419-435. 

The literature in this area is extensive and some of the concepts and symbolism may be transitory. This chapter reviews the field at a level and with a coverage adequate for the experimentalist to use the standard relationships and to follow their use in the mechanistic literature. Research on the meaning of the extrathermody-namic relationships themselves is beyond our needs the interested reader can explore these ideas further in the references cited. Grunwald has reviewed the early history of LFERs. 

Lipoic acid (6,8-dithiooctanoic acid) was isolated and characterized in 1951 in studies that showed that it was required for the growth of certain bacteria and protozoa. This accomplishment was one of the most impressive feats of isolation in the early history of biochemistry. Eli Lilly and Co., in cooperation with Lester J. Reed at the University of Texas and I. C. Gunsalus at the... 

The ability of a nltro group in the substrate to bring about electron-transfer free radical chain nucleophilic subsdnidon fSpj li at a saniratedcarbon atom is well documented. Such electron transfer reacdons are one of the characterisdc feanires of nltro compounds. Komblum and Russell have established ihe Spj l reaction independently the details of the early history have been well reviewed by them. The reacdon of -nitrobenzyl chloride v/ith a salt of nitro ilkane is in sharp contrast to the general behavior of the ilkyladon of the carbanions derived from nitro ilkanes here, carbon ilkyladon is predominant. The carbon ilkyladon process proceeds via a chain reacdon involving anion radicals and free radicals, as shovmin Eq. 5.24 and Scheme 5.4 fSpj l reacdoni. 

The early history of ionic liquid research was dominated by their application as electrochemical solvents. One of the first recognized uses of ionic liquids was as a solvent system for the room-temperature electrodeposition of aluminium [1]. In addition, much of the initial development of ionic liquids was focused on their use as electrolytes for battery and capacitor applications. Electrochemical studies in the ionic liquids have until recently been dominated by work in the room-temperature haloaluminate molten salts. This work has been extensively reviewed [2-9]. Development of non-haloaluminate ionic liquids over the past ten years has resulted in an explosion of research in these systems. However, recent reviews have provided only a cursory look at the application of these new ionic liquids as electrochemical solvents [10, 11]. 

The early history of redox initiation has been described by Bacon.23 The subject has also been reviewed by Misra and Bajpai,207 Bamford298 and Sarac.2,0 The mechanism of redox initiation is usually bimolecular and involves a single electron transfer as the essential feature of the mechanism that distinguishes it from other initiation processes. Redox initiation systems are in common use when initiation is required at or below ambient temperature and drey are frequently used for initiation of emulsion polymerization. 

Indeed it can be stated that the history of modern expls begins with the discoveries of nitroglycerin (NG) and nitrocellulose (or more correctly cellulose nitrate or NC) nearly 125 years ago, and their application to military and commercial usage. An excellent review of the early history of NC is given by. T.L. Davis (Ref 29, pp 244—56). The early histories of NG and EGDN (discovered in 1870) are summarized, respectively, in Vol 6, G99-R to G100-R and E259-R, and in the Naoum reference cited above... 

The expl nature of N trichloride has been known since the end of the 18th century when Sir H. Davy reported, The fulminating oil which you mentioned roused my curiosity and nearly deprived me of an eye. After some months confinement I am again well. (Ref 12). The early history of this compd is reviewed in this Ref. It is readily prepd by the action of Cl on ammonia or Amm salts (Refs 2,6 13) or by the electrolysis of an unstirred coned soln of Amm chloride at 35—40° (Ref 4). A procedure for the prepn of a soln of N trichloride in chlf is described In Ref 1, and prepn on an industrial scale in Ref 7... 

Extensive historical reviews of NS are given by Caesar (Ref 21a) and by Urbanski (Ref 26, pp 418—20). For the early history of NS, which parallels that of NC, we quote Urbanski ... 

Historical Introduction and Perchlorates in General History. The early history of perchlorates and the perchlorate mdustryhas been thoroughly discussed (Refs 12 14, p 2), so it will be only briefly reviewed here. Early exptl work on chlorates and perchlorates was closely tied to the discovery and identification of Cl. Several workers, notably Priestly, Lavoisier, and Scheele reported the isolation of volat liqs and gases which probably were oxides or oxyacids of Cl, but they failed to identify and characterize the compds isolated. Scheele, for example, treated muriatic ac (HCl) with Mn dioxide and obtained a volat liq which he called muriatic ac derived of its phlogiston (Ref 14, p3). The first perchlorate definitely identified was the K salt which was prepd by Stadion in 1816 by the thermal decompn of K chlorate (Ref 2). From this he prepd a hydrate of perchloric ac by heating the K salt with sulfuric ac (Ref 3). Pure (anhyd) perchloric ac was first prepd by Roscoe in 1862 by distn of the hydrated ac (Ref 4)... 

Preparation. The early history of the prepn of K perchlorate by the action of acids on K chlorate is reviewed in Ref 3. These authors found that treatment of 2—5g of K chlorate with 50ml of coned sulfuric ac gave an 11 % yield of K perchlorate. The sulfuric ac must be added slowly with cooling to the K chlorate, or expins may result, Similarly, nitric ac gave a yield of 15— 30%, 85% phosphoric ac gave a yield of 15%, and Cr trioxide gave a yield of 12-15%. Org acids failed to yield any perchlorate when heated with K chlorate (Ref 3). It can also be prepu by heating a mixt of solid K chloride with... 

The Willamette River is the twelfth largest river in the U.S. and has been studied extensively for over sixty years. The early history of the river was... 

The early history of the material is obscure. According to Palmer (1891) it goes back to 1832, but this statement has never been corroborated. Rostaing (1878) patented a series of pyrophosphate cements which could include Zn, Mg, Cd, Ba and Ca. Rollins (1879) described a cement formed from zinc oxide and syrupy phosphoric acid. In the same paper he mentions zinc phosphate cements recently introduced by Fletcher and Weston. Similar information is given in a discussion of the Pennsylvania... 

The early history of the cement is obscure. Dreschfeld (1907) and Sanderson (1908) attributed its invention to Fletcher. Fletcher (1878,1879) certainly described cements formed from concentrated orthophosphoric acid solutions and sintered mixtures of oxides which included SiOj, AljOj, CaO and ZnO. One was reported by Fletcher (1879) as being slightly translucent. These cements were not successful in clinical use. 

In 1901, the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) - now the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) - was founded because of the increasing demand for various kinds of standards in the rapidly developing engineering industries. The early history of the NBS reference material program started in 1905 with a cooperative effort within the iron and steel industry whereby industrial analysts helped characterize the individual reference materials. Cooperation with NBS was recognized as a mark of achievement for the laboratory, so this effort served a dual purpose. It both helped the laboratory develop its measurement skills and also helped NIST understand the meastuement problems associated with a given matrix. 

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