History of the Theory

As early as 1900, the German physicist Paul Drude recognized that many of the properties of metals could be understood if one assumed that the electrons within the metal were free. With the development of quantum mechanics in the 1920 s, it became clear why such an assumption might be justified, and what seemed a 

Some of the motivation for refinement of the methods has been a scareh for an understanding of what determines the crystal structure of individual metals. The first serious attempt at predicting structures was directed at Na, Mg, and A1 (Harrison, 1964), and it succeeded completely for these three metals. Subsequent studies (reviewed by Harrison, 1966a, p. 1891 f) suggested that these metals were a fortuitous choice, however. More recent, careful studies seem to have confirmed that second-order pscudopotential theory is not adequate to determine the structures correctly. One contrary example is the work of Hafner and Nowotny (1972), which correctly gave nine out of nine structures for pure metals. An extension of 

Our general approach will be to proceed with the simplest theory and add refinements, as was done for other systems. In particular, we first discuss the frec-electron theory, which by itself accounts for many of the properties of simple 

The central assumption of free-electron theory is that each atom gives up its valence electrons to the metal, and the states of these electrons are unaffected by the metallic ions formed from the atoms thus stripped of their electrons. The number Z of electrons each atom gives to the metal is unambiguous it is the number in excess of the last inert-gas shell or in excess of the last completed d shell, whichever is less. These electrons form a uniform electron gas in the metal. We may thus proceed to a discussion of such a gas and obtain the consequences for the properties of the metal. In Section 16-F we shall introduce the modification of the electron states caused by the metallic ions, describing the influence of those ions by a pscudopotential. 

We may think of a free-electron gas as having a vanishing potential (or equivalently, a constant potential, since wc can measure energies from that potential level). The Hamiltonian becomes simply -h V Ilm, and the solutions of the time-independent Schroedinger equation, Eq. (1-5), can be written as plane waves, e h Wc must apply suitable boundary conditions, and this is most conveniently done by imagining the crystal to be a rectangular parallelepiped, as shown in Fig. 15-1. Then wc apply periodic boundary conditions on the surface, as wc did following F.q. (2-2). The normalized plane-wave stales may be written as 

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Harman, P. (1998). The Natural Philosophy of James Clerk Maxwell. Cambridge, Eng. Cambridge University Press. Siegel, n. M. (1991). hniovatioti in Maxwell s Electromagnetic Theory. Cambridge, Eng. Cambridge University Press. Whittaker, E. T. (1954). History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Vols. 1-2. New York Philosophical Libraiy. 

E. Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (1910) (reprinted by Humanities Press Inc, New York, 1973). 

During his researches into the history of the theory of the relationship between colour and constitution of organic compounds,167 168 Dahne has examined the contributions of W. A. Ismailsky (1885-1973), whose career (mainly in Moscow) spanned both the closing years of pre-revolutionary Russia and the Soviet period.169170 Ismailsky appears to have been one of those who anticipated the theory of resonance in connection with the structures of aromatic molecules. This was in his thesis at the Technical University of Dresden in 1913, where he had worked under the direction of Walter Koenig. 

Watt to William Small, 17 August 1773, quoted in Schofield, The Lunar Society, p. 70, and in W. E. K. Middleton, A History of the Theories of Rain and other Forms of Precipita-tion (London Oldbourne, 1965), p. 37. 

A History of the Theories of Rain and other Forms of Precipitation (London Oldbourne, 1965). 

There are some who see this equation as indicative that a whole different approach to conductance theory might be waiting in the wings, as it were. As the concentration increases, the idea of an ionic atmosphere becomes less useful and one might start at the other end, with ideas used to treat molten salts (Chapter 5), but in a diluted form. This would repeat the history of the theory of liquids which, in the early part of this century, was derived from the treatment of very compressed gases but later seemed to be more developable from modifications of how solids are treated. 

Dickson, Leonard Eugene. History of the Theory of Numbers. 

This might have been a convenient point to present a commentary on the history of the theory underlying occult symbolism, which has a considerable bearing on the development of the sigilst ho ever, the sigils themselves have left little space here for such a study, and... 

Surveying the history of the theory of optical lanthanide spectroscopy, we can discern several main features the usefulness of Lie groups, following their introduction by Racah (1949) the relevance of the method of second quantization, as demonstrated by the use of annihilation and creation operators for electrons and the inability of the Hartree-Fock method and its various elaborations to provide accurate values (say to within 1%) of such crucial quantities as the Slater integrals F (4f,4f) and the Sternheimer correction factors R , for a free ion. The success of the formal mathematics is in striking contrast to the failure of the machinery of computation. This turn of events has happened over a period of time when... 

In 1842 Laurent, under the title Trent et unieme memoire sur les types , published an account of further researches on naphthalene derivatives. He gives a history of the theory of types (see p. 392) and describes, with their crystalline forms, the chloro-, bromo-, nitro-, etc., derivatives of naphthalene, the compounds formed by the action of nitric acid on the chlorides, chloroxy-naphthalic acid, chloroxynaphthose, etc. (now regarded as derivatives of... 

Laurent said I express these facts otherwise by saying that chlorine, this substance so different from hydrogen, may in certain circumstances, come to take the place of this and play its role, without changing the arrangement of the atoms of the compound in which it enters. Dumas later, after giving a history of the theory of substitution, said Ce que M. Laurent reconnu plus tard, c est que dans les phenomenes de substitution le type est conserve, c est-a-dire que non seulement le chlore prend la place de Thydrogene mais qu il joue le mime role These two statements seem to me to epitomise the whole of the facts. 

Sheynin O (2004) History of the theory of probability to the beginning of the 20th century. NG Verlag, Berlin... 

Mosini, V. 2000. A brief history of the theory of resonance and of its interpretation. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 31 564-581. 

There is a long history of the theory of water and aqueous solutions based on various mixture model (MM) approaches. One of the earliest documented explanations of some anomalous properties of water is due to Rontgen, who in 1892 proposed to view liquid water as consisting of two kinds of molecules, one of which he referred to as ice-molecules. The general idea of explaining the properties of water by viewing it as a mixture of species probably originated much earlier. 

Atkinson, the professor of chemistry at Tokyo University, read a lecture on the history of the theory of elements at the first annual meeting of the Society on April 19, 1879. This was one of the earliest mentions of the periodic law in a Japanese publication. Atkinson referred to Lothar Meyer s paper on the relationship between atomic weights and atomic volumes, but did not mention Mendeleev. ... 

R. W. Atkinson, Genso no seitai ni kansuru shiso no enkaku ryaku-setsu [An Outline of the History of the Theory of Elements] Tokyo Kagaku Kaishi [Journal of the Tokyo Chemical Society] 2 (1) 1-54 (1881), p. 39. Matsui Naokichi, Genshi-setsu enkaku no Gairyaku [An Outline of the History of Atomic Theory] Tokyo Kagaku Kaishi [Journal of the Tokyo Chemical Society] 3 (1) 35-48 (1883), p. 48. 

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