Serum chromium

Aqueous standard solutions are a source of certain difficulties In electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry of trace metals In biological fluids The viscosities and surface tensions of aqueous standard solutions are substantially less than the viscosities and surface tensions of serum, blood and other proteln-contalnlng fluids These factors Introduce volumetric disparities In pipetting of standard solutions and body fluids, and also cause differences In penetration of these liquids Into porous graphite tubes or rods Preliminary treatment of porous graphite with xylene may help to minimize the differences of liquid penetration (53,67) A more satisfactory solution of this problem Is preparation of standards In aqueous solutions of metal-free dextran (50-60 g/llter), as first proposed by Pekarek et al ( ) for the standardization of serum chromium analyses This practice has been used successfully by the present author for standardization of analyses of serum nickel The standard solutions which are prepared In aqueous dextran resemble serum In regard to viscosity and surface tension Introduction of dextran-contalnlng standard solutions Is an Important contribution to electrothermal atomic absorption analysis of trace metals In body fluids. 

Pekarek, R. S. and Hauer, E. C. "Direct Determination of Serum Chromium and Nickel by an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer with a Heated Graphite Furnace". Fed. Proc. 

Chromium may be transferred to infants via breast milk as indicated by breast milk levels of chromium in women exposed occupationally (Shmitova 1980) or via normal levels in the diet (Casey and Hambidge 1984). It has been demonstrated that in healthy women, the levels of chromium measured in breast milk are independent of serum chromium levels, urinary chromium excretion, or dietary intake of chromium (Anderson et al. 1993, Mohamedshah et al. 1998), but others (Engelhardt et al. 1990) have disputed this observation. 

A steady increase in serum chromium was found with length of time on TPN. In some patients, the serum chromium levels were near the upper normal value of 0.2 mg/L and others were up to 8- to 25-fold greater then normal values. No significant correlations were observed with respect to sleep disturbances, daytime mental changes, colorful dreams, frightening dreams, or nightmares. 

Anderson RA, Bryden NA, Patterson KY, et al. 1993. Breast milk chromium and its association with chromium intake, chromium excretion, and serum chromium. Clin Nutr 57 519-523. 

It was later noted that a patient on TPN who developed glucose intolerance and neuropathy also had been receiving metronidazole. Baseline serum chromium concentrations were seemingly increased. Yet treatment with 250 fig chromium chloride intravenously for 2 weeks resulted in rapid clinical remission, and normal nerve conduction was restored within 3 weeks. ... 

A beneficial response of glucose-intolerant patients to chromium supplementation is presently the only means of confirming chromium deficiency. No practicable method of assessing intracellular chromium depletion is yet available and there is no consistently reliable animal model for chromium deficiency. Furthermore, it has been known from early animal experiments that circulating chromium is not in equihbrium with physiologically important reserves. It has been shown in late pregnancy that serum chromium concentration does not correlate with glucose intolerance, insuhn resistance, or serum hpids. ... 

Serum chromium does not predict glucose tolerance in late pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 2001 73 99-104. 

Leung FY, Galbraith LV. Elevated serum chromium in patients on total parenteral nutrition and the ionic species of contaminant chromium. Biol Trace Elem Res 1995 50 221-8. 

A further check on the occurrence of systematic errors in a method is to compare the results with those obtained from a different method, if two unrelated methods are used to perform one analysis, and if they consistently yield results showing only random differences, it is a reasonable presumption that no significant systematic errors are present. For this approach to be valid, each step of the two experiments has to be independent. Thus in the case of serum chromium determinations, it would not be sufficient to replace the atomic-absorption spectrometry step by a colorimetric method or by plasma spectrometry. The systematic errors would only be revealed by altering the sampling methods also, e.g. by minimizing or eliminating the use of stainless-steel equipment. A further important point is that comparisons must be made over the whole of the concentration range for which an analytical procedure is... 

Zeh A et al (2007) Release of cobalt and chromium ions into the serum following implantation of the metal-on-metal Maverick-type artificial lumbar disc (Medtronic Sofamor Danek). Spine 32(3) 348-352... 

Preston, A.M., R.P. Dowdy, M.A. Preston, and J.N. Freeman. 1976. Effect of dietary chromium on glucose tolerance and serum cholesterol in guinea pigs. Jour. Nutr. 106 1391-1397. 

Feldman and co-workers117) described a procedure for determining as little as 10 ppb of chromium in serum. The normal level is 30 ppb. At least 2 ml of serum are digested or dry ashed and treated with not permanganate to oxidize chromium to chromium(VI). The chromium(VI) is extracted from 3M HC1 into 5 ml MIBK in the cold. This method has been used to measure chromium levels in studies relating this element to diabetes. Thousands of analyses have been performed. Devoto (198) dry ashed 10 ml of blood and extracted the chromium with 5 ml of 10 % tributyl phosphate in MIBK. Recently, Feldman 119) has determined... 

It is known that part of this process involves the 80-kDa blood serum protein transferrin that tightly binds and transports two ferric iron ions. Because the iron binding uses only 30% of transferrin s metal binding capacity, it has long been thought to bind and transfer other metal ions (including perhaps chromium) in vivo, although this has not been demonstrated by experiment. 

An accurate determination of copper and zinc traces in human serum samples from the International Measurement Evaluation Programme-17 launched by IRMM (Geel) has been made by isotope dilution TIMS.38 An analytical method for the multi-element determination of metals (Ti, V, Cr, Co, Ni and Mo) potentially released from dental implants and prostheses into human body fluids (in blood and urine) by ICP-MS (double-focusing sector field instrument and quadrupole instrument with octopole collision cell) for medical studies was developed in Sanz-Medel s group.39 The Cr and Co concentrations found in blood samples of patients with chromium-cobalt based alloy varied in the sub-p,gl 1 range and were not significantly higher than the basal levels found by other authors.40... 

Chromium 2 mg 50-200 fig Potentiation of insulin, maintenance of normal glucose tolerance In malnutrition, aging, TPN impaired glucose tolerance, relative insulin resistance, elevated serum lipids, peripheral neuropathy Unknown15... 

Mertz DP, Koschnick R, Wilk G, et al. 1968. [Studies on the metabolism of trace elements in humans. I. Serum values for cobalt, nickel, silver, cadmium, chromium, molybdenum, manganese],... 

Chromium can be measured in the hair, urine, serum, red blood cells, and whole blood. 

The hepatic effects observed in animals after inhalation exposure to chromium or its compounds were minimal and not considered to be adverse. Rats exposed to as much as 0.4 mg chromium(VI)/m3 as sodium dichromate for 90 days did not have increased serum levels of alanine aminotransferase or alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, creatinine, urea, or bilirubin (Glaser et al. 1990). Triglycerides and phospholipids were increased only in the 0.2 mg chromium(VI)/m3 group exposed for 90 days (Glaser et al. 1985). Chronic exposure of rats to 0.1 mg chromium(VI)/m3 as sodium dichromate, to 0.1 mg total chromium/m3 as a 3 2 mixture of chromium(VI) trioxide and chromium(III) oxide, or to 15.5 mg chromium(IV)/m3 as chromium dioxide did not cause adverse hepatic effects as assessed by histological examination and liver function tests (Glaser et al. 1986,1988 Lee et al. 1989). 

Studies of renal function in stainless steel welders, whose exposure is mainly to chromium(VI) compounds, were negative. Stainless steel welders had significantly increased (p<0.001) levels of urinary chromium, increased clearance of chromium, and increased serum creatinine compared with controls, but no differences were found in the levels of retinol binding protein, p2-microglobulin or other indices of kidney damage (Verschoor et al. 1988). Similar negative results were found in another group of stainless steel welders (Littorin et al. 1984). 

Information regarding liver effects in animals after dermal exposure to chromium or its compounds is limited. A single application of 0.5% potassium dichromate (0.175% chromium(VI)) to the shaved skin of rats resulted in increased levels of serotonin in the liver, decreased activities of acetylcholinesterase and cholinesterase in the plasma and erythrocytes, increased levels of acetylcholine in the blood, and increased glycoprotein hexose in the serum. These effects may indicate alterations in carbohydrate metabolism (Merkur eva et al. 1982). 

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