Resolution temporal

Laser Raman diagnostic teclmiques offer remote, nonintnisive, nonperturbing measurements with high spatial and temporal resolution [158], This is particularly advantageous in the area of combustion chemistry. Physical probes for temperature and concentration measurements can be debatable in many combustion systems, such as furnaces, internal combustors etc., since they may disturb the medium or, even worse, not withstand the hostile enviromnents [159]. Laser Raman techniques are employed since two of the dominant molecules associated with air-fed combustion are O2 and N2. Flomonuclear diatomic molecules unable to have a nuclear coordinate-dependent dipole moment caimot be diagnosed by infrared spectroscopy. Other combustion species include CFl, CO2, FI2O and FI2 [160]. These molecules are probed by Raman spectroscopy to detenuine the temperature profile and species concentration m various combustion processes. 

Another variation is the mode-locked dye laser, often referred to as an ultrafast laser. Such lasers offer pulses having durations as short as a few hundred femtoseconds (10 s). These have been used to study the dynamics of chemical reactions with very high temporal resolution (see Kinetic LffiASURELffiNTS). 

X-ray absorption is a well understood process. It provides precise quantification of e.g., contrast agent concentration in the tissue or body cavities and excellent spatial and temporal resolution. Diagnostic applications do not require advancing the X-ray source... 

Limited temporal resolution - Focal plane arrays are aU inherently framing detectors and knowledge of the arrival time of photons is limited to the frame time of the detector. While the frame time can be quite short for adaptive optics detectors ( 1 ms), in most astronomical instruments the frame time is on the order of seconds or minutes, adequate for most astronomical science, but not all. 

The advent of fast computers and the availability of detailed data on the occurrence of certain chemical species have made it possible to construct meaningful cycle models with a much smaller and faster spatial and temporal resolution. These spatial and time scales correspond to those in weather forecast models, i.e. down to 100 km and 1 h. Transport processes (e.g., for CO2 and sulfur compounds) in the oceans and atmosphere can be explicitly described in such models. These are often referred to as "tracer transport models." This type of model will also be discussed briefly in this chapter. 

Molecular dynamics (MD) permits the nature of contact formation, indentation, and adhesion to be examined on the nanometer scale. These are computer experiments in which the equations of motion of each constituent particle are considered. The evolution of the system of interacting particles can thus be tracked with high spatial and temporal resolution. As computer speeds increase, so do the number of constituent particles that can be considered within realistic time frames. To enable experimental comparison, many MD simulations take the form of a tip-substrate geometry correspoudiug to scauniug probe methods of iuvestigatiug siugle-asperity coutacts (see Sectiou III.A). 

The stimulation method could not address the role of the elaboration areas and the study of brain damaged patients or lesion studies of animals is hampered by the lack of temporal resolution. What is needed for another wave of reverse engineering, then, is the ability to stimulate the brain while it is doing something, or to be able to reversibly disrupt its functioning to give the lesion method a temporal dimension. The story of how we are able to achieve both of these takes us back to Faraday.. . . ... 

Catheter angiography provides exquisite image detail and can visualize vessels as small as 0.1 mm in diameter, considerably smaller than those seen by CT- and MR-based vascular imaging techniques. Catheter angiography also provides high temporal resolution, which can help to distinguish arteries from veins and to detect prolonged intravascular stasis of blood. 

For the investigation of polymer systems under spatial confinement, fluorescence microscopy is a powerful method providing valuable information with high sensitivity. A fluorescence microscopy technique with nanometric spatial resolution and nanosecond temporal resolution has been developed, and was used to study the structure and dynamics of polymer chains under spatial confinement a polymer chain in an ultra-thin film and a chain grafted on a solid substrate. Studies on the conformation of the single polymer chain in a thin film and the local segmental motion of the graft polymer chain are described herein. 

In addition, combining the microscope with the use of a pulsed laser light source provides temporal information on these systems in a small domain. The dispersion of refractive index, however, strongly affects the temporal resolution in the measurements of dynamics under the microscope and typical resolution stays around 100 fs when a Ti Sapphire laser is used as an excitation source. 

As briefly mentioned in the previous section, PCS provides quantitative information on the lifetime of the non-radiative state for molecules in solution in the time range from sub-microseconds to seconds. This method can, potentially, be applied to the characterization of the photophysical properties of quantum dots freely diffusing in solution with higher temporal resolution than the previous SPD. 

However, few studies have been conducted because of analytical difficulties during extraction and measurement such as re-adsorption or incomplete removal, and the low temporal resolution that can be achieved Also, it is considered likely that the global meteoric water relationship in Equation (6) does not apply consistently across the globe... 

---