Poultry broilers

Coccidia are intracellular protazoal parasites that are frequently found in the intestinal epithelial cells of animals they are also found in other tissues (liver), and are usually transmitted by faecal infection. The potential for infection is at its highest when young animals are brought together in intensive housing systems (e.g. poultry-broiler production). As a result coccidiosis is a major issue for the poultry industry throughout the world. 

One liver sample from 252 samples of poultry liver that were tested was found to contain residues of monensin (5 pg/kg). Three samples from 237 samples of poultry (broiler) liver tested for the presence of this compound contained lasalocid at concentrations of 140 pg/kg, 63 pg/kg and 62 /xg/kg. In both cases (monensin and lasalocid) the problem appeared to be caused by feed manufacturing, transport and storage procedures. 

In the United States, more than 16.3 x 10 kg of human-inedible raw materials are available each year, and the rendering industry is a valuable asset in diverting these into valuable ingredients for use primarily in animal foods (4). The three largest meat packers are responsible for nearly four-fifths of aU red meat production (5) and enormous amounts of rendered meat meal and animal fat. Three broiler producers account for about 40% of the total broiler production. American Proteins, Inc. (RosweU, Georgia), the world s largest processor of poultry by-products, produces more than 450,000 t of poultry meal, feather meal, and poultry fat each year. It also produces more than 100,000 t of fish meal, fish oil, and fish products each year. Pish meal production worldwide in 1986 was estimated at 6.23 x 10 t, which with the 125 x 10 t of meat and bone meal plus 6.67 x 10 t of feather meal and poultry by-product meal (6) is the primary source of animal proteins used by the pet food industry. 

Eor fresh poultry, a potassium sorbate dip significantly reduces total viable bacteria and doubles the refrigerated shelf life of ice-packed broilers (133). In cooked, uncured, vacuum-packaged turkey and poultry stored at 4°C, 0.2—0.25 wt % potassium sorbate suppresses microbial growth for up to 10 days (134). Sorbic acid at 0.5% in a marinade mixture for chicken dmmmettes extends refrigerator shelf life (135). Country-cured hams sprayed with a 10 wt % potassium sorbate solution showed no mold growth for up to 30 days (136). A review of sorbate use in meat and fish products has been pubHshed (137). 

Poultry feed ingredient (pigmentation of broilers and egg yolks) Torres-Cardona et al., U.S. Patent 5,523,494, 1994... 

The world production of turkeys is rising consistently. The smaller birds (4.5-6.5 kg) are kept rather like broilers, though not by organic producers, whilst the larger birds (8-15 kg) are reared in simple housing of the pole-barn type or even outdoors. Clean land which has not carried poultry or turkeys for two years is essential. Turkeys are extremely hardy and on range they need only simple housing or shelters. 

Fattening poultry (in fixed housing) 10 with a maximum of 21kg liveweight/m2 20 (for guinea fowl only) 4 broilers and guinea fowl, 4,5 ducks, 10 turkey, 15 geese In all the species mentioned above the limit of 170 kg of N/ha/year is not to be exceeded... 

Fattening poultry Fattening performance (important for fattener) weight gain, feed conversion, mortality, constitution (more leg problems and heart/ circulatory failure in lines with fast growing rate), productivity index (EBI European broiler index)... 

Kubena, L.F. 1981. The influence of diflubenzuron on several weight characteristics in growing male broiler and layer chickens. Poultry Sci. 60 1175-1182. 

The attempts at increasing the efficiency of labour and capital have led to intensive systems for animal husbandry. Slatted floors with the storage of slurry under it are very common. This is special hue for pigs and cattle. Poultry is different. Broilers live on a... 

J. Guban, D. R. Korver, G. E. Allison and G. W. Tannock, Relationship of dietary antimicrobial drug administration with broiler performance, decreased population levels of Lactobacillus salivarius and reduced bile salt deconjugation in the ileum of broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 2006, 85, 2186-2194. 

The efficacy of such products in poultry is amply demonstrated by data collected from many studies. In addition to the potential reduction in feeding costs, when including cheap barley supplemented with enzymes, broiler producers have also reported savings in litter costs and fewer carcass downgrades due to hock and breast bums. Similar benefits have been reported for other types of poultry, including laying hens and turkeys. 

Residue studies following oral administration of spiramycin were also carried out in swine and poultry. The high residue levels found in swine liver and kidney declined to below 0.3 ppm at 10 days after treatment. The residue levels found in the liver of broilers given medicated feed (300 mg/kg of feed) for 10 days declined below 0.02 ppm at 8 days after the dietary administration. 

Lasalocid is widely used for controlling poultry coccidiosis since it is very efficient against all species of Eimeria at the optimal dose of 90 ppm in the feed. It is licensed for use in broilers and hens up to 16 weeks from hatching but is not licensed for use in laying hens. It has been also used as a growth promoter in cattle. 

Roxarsone has been used by the poultry industry due primarily to its ability to improve growth, feed conversion, and pigmentation to broilers. At least 50% of the poultry industry has used roxarsone as a growth promoter, although the drug also exhibits anticoccidial activity similar to that of arsanilic acid (3). Roxarsone is not approved for use as anticoccidial in the United States, but it is approved for use in chicken and turkey feeds as a growth promoter. It is added in poultry feeds at a rate of 50 ppm and in swine feeds at 25-37.5 ppm. 

In 1993, another immunoassay for the detection of monensin was developed but, unfortunately, was never applied to biological material (91). Quite recently a competitive ELISA and a compatible extraction procedure suitable for screening monensin in poultry liver samples was described (92). In this assay, a polyclonal antiserum raised against a monensin-transferrin conjugate and prepared via an acid anhydride intermediate (93) was used. Significant cross-reactivity with other polyethers commonly used by the broiler industry, such as maduramicin, lasalocid, salinomycin, and narasin, was not found. A detection limit of 3 ppb could be readily attained when liver samples were submitted to extraction with aqueous acetonitrile, partitioning between aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and a hexane-diethyl either mixture, evaporation of the organic phase, and reconstitution in ethanol/sodium acetate solution. 

Most organic poultry farmers use normal hybrid strains at least for laying hens. For meat poultry like turkeys or broilers some slower growing strains are available, bred for example, for the free-range label production in France. However, these birds are also hybrids, which mean that the farmers cannot reproduce their own animals. 

Pedersen, M.A., Thamsborg, S.M., Fisker, C., Ranvig, H. and Christensen, J.P. 2003. New production systems evaluation of organic broiler production in Denmark. Journal oj Applied Poultry Research 12 493-508. 

Z. Yi, E. T. Kornegay, and D. M. Denbow, Supplemental microbial phytase improves zinc utilization in broilers, Poultry Sci. 1996b, 75, 540-546. 

Gonzalez-Esquerra, R. and Leeson, S. 2000. Effects of menhaden oil and flaxseed in broiler diets on sensory quality and lipid composition of poultry meat. British Poultry Sci. 41, 481—488. Gonzalez-Esquerra, R. and Leeson, S. 2001. Alternatives for enrichment of eggs and chicken meat with omega-3 fatty acids. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 81, 295-305. 

This compound is currently licensed for use only in turkeys and guinea fowl as a feed additive and must not be used in laying hens. No residues of this compound were detected in liver samples (784) obtained from broilers, hens, ducks and turkeys. However, residues were found to be present in 25 broiler, three duck and one hen feed sample. In the future it is unlikely that this compound will continue to be authorised for use as a feed additive in any poultry species. 

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