Broiler

Table 2. Nutrient Requirements of Broiler Chickens at Specific Ages, Weeks...

In the United States, more than 16.3 x 10 kg of human-inedible raw materials are available each year, and the rendering industry is a valuable asset in diverting these into valuable ingredients for use primarily in animal foods (4). The three largest meat packers are responsible for nearly four-fifths of aU red meat production (5) and enormous amounts of rendered meat meal and animal fat. Three broiler producers account for about 40% of the total broiler production. American Proteins, Inc. (RosweU, Georgia), the world s largest processor of poultry by-products, produces more than 450,000 t of poultry meal, feather meal, and poultry fat each year. It also produces more than 100,000 t of fish meal, fish oil, and fish products each year. Pish meal production worldwide in 1986 was estimated at 6.23 x 10 t, which with the 125 x 10 t of meat and bone meal plus 6.67 x 10 t of feather meal and poultry by-product meal (6) is the primary source of animal proteins used by the pet food industry. 

Eor fresh poultry, a potassium sorbate dip significantly reduces total viable bacteria and doubles the refrigerated shelf life of ice-packed broilers (133). In cooked, uncured, vacuum-packaged turkey and poultry stored at 4°C, 0.2—0.25 wt % potassium sorbate suppresses microbial growth for up to 10 days (134). Sorbic acid at 0.5% in a marinade mixture for chicken dmmmettes extends refrigerator shelf life (135). Country-cured hams sprayed with a 10 wt % potassium sorbate solution showed no mold growth for up to 30 days (136). A review of sorbate use in meat and fish products has been pubHshed (137). 

H. Edwards, "Factors Influencing Leg Disorders ia Broilers," p. 21 ia (Proceedings of the Maryland Nutrition Conference, March 23, 1995, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland). 

In the United States, coal had a 57 percent share of the electric power fuel market in 2000, up from 46 percent in 1970. This amounts to 430,000 MW generated by steam turbines that are fueled with coal. Wlien considering other sources of generating steam for electric power—such as nuclear reactors, gas- or oil-fired broilers, and waste heat from gas turbines— steam turbines now comprise more than 600,000 MW of capacity, or approximately 75 percent of all generating capacity in the United States. 

Sucrose caramels have been produced under anhydrous thermal conditions that are designed to maximize the content of fructose-rich oligosaccharides.100-102 These sucrose thermal oligosaccharide caramels (STOC) have been tested in animals as a nutritional supplement. Improved weight gains and feed conversion, and increased levels of bifidobacteria (see section VIII) were observed in broiler chickens that were fed this supplement.103... 

Male mice exposed to 7.3 mg/kg/day for 13 weeks had significantly decreased spleen weights and decreased neutrophil counts (Hoechst 1984b), indicating that immune activity in mice may also be affected. An intermediate-duration oral MRL of 0.005 mg/kg/day was derived based on the NOAEL of 0.45 mg/kg/day for immunotoxicity identified in the Banerjee and Hussain (1986) study. In support of these positive findings, Khurana et al. (1998) observed decreased macrophage functionality, in the absence of any other apparent toxicological effects, in 1-day-old broiler chicks fed 30 ppm endosulfan in the diet for 4 or 8 weeks. 

Khurana SK, Chauhan RS, Mahipal SK. 1998. Immunotoxic effects of cypermethrin and endosulfan on macrophage functions of broiler chicks. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 68(2) 105-106. 

A consistent pericardial edema in chickens gave rise to the term chick edema disease (chick edema factor) (I). Two known outbreaks of the disease in the broiler industry resulted in a great loss of chickens. A lipid residue from the manufacturing fatty acids, being used as a feed ingredient, was a principal source of the toxic substance. Contamination of the lipid component with polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins was attributed as the causal agent. 

Feed ingredient (pigmentation of broilers and egg yolks) Torres-Cardona et al., U.S. Patent 5,969,948, 1998... 

Gee JM, JL Peel (1974) Metabolism of 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol by micro-organisms from broiler house litter. J Gen Microbiol 85 237-243. 

Crooks et al. developed a monensin immunoassay for the detection of residues in broiler livers. Livers were homogenized in aqueous acetonitrile, subsequently extracted with sodium hydroxide followed with hexane-diethyl ether, and the remaining solvent was evaporated before reconstitution in buffer for analysis. The LOD (mean-I-3 SD) was 2.9qgkg and the LOQ (mean- -6SD) was 4.6p.gkg . Incurred samples showed considerable animal-to-animal variation, but all samples were below the detection limit after 3 days. 

The ever-increasing power of the food industry makes a mockery of free enterprise, as farmers find markets difficult to enter (Merrigan, 1997). One supermarket in America advertises itself as supermarket to the world . Farms have got bigger in America, particularly in the livestock industry, with pigs housed in lots of 3000 or more, cattle herds numbering tens of thousands and broiler units of 500 000 hens these are in danger of becoming the norm. 

The world production of turkeys is rising consistently. The smaller birds (4.5-6.5 kg) are kept rather like broilers, though not by organic producers, whilst the larger birds (8-15 kg) are reared in simple housing of the pole-barn type or even outdoors. Clean land which has not carried poultry or turkeys for two years is essential. Turkeys are extremely hardy and on range they need only simple housing or shelters. 

Bao et al. [70] Lab-scale in-vessel composting (20-25 1 identical lab vessels) Broiler manure, layer-hen manure, and hog manure Chlortetracycline (CTC)... 

Fattening poultry (in fixed housing) 10 with a maximum of 21kg liveweight/m2 20 (for guinea fowl only) 4 broilers and guinea fowl, 4,5 ducks, 10 turkey, 15 geese In all the species mentioned above the limit of 170 kg of N/ha/year is not to be exceeded... 

In broilers of modern fast growing, meat production genotypes, most deaths are due to sudden heart failure and parasite infections (see also Chapter 12). Also such genotypes suffer from leg disorders (perosis, tibial dyschondroplasia, etc.) and muscle diseases to such an extent that they have difficulty in walking normally. They are thought to suffer severe pain and consequently spend much longer lying down. This in turn may lead to serious breast blisters. 

Fattening poultry Fattening performance (important for fattener) weight gain, feed conversion, mortality, constitution (more leg problems and heart/ circulatory failure in lines with fast growing rate), productivity index (EBI European broiler index)... 

Castellini C., Mugnai C. and Dal Bosco A. (2002). Effect of organic production system on broiler carcass and meat quality . Meat Science, 60, 219-225. 

Heuer O.E., Pedersen K., Andersen J.S. and Madsen M. (2001). Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of thermophilic Campylobacter in organic and conventional broiler flocks , Letters in Applied Microbiology, 33, 269-274. 

Horsted K., Henning, J. and Hermansen J.E. (2005). Growth and sensory characteristics of organically reared broilers differeing in strain, sex and age at slaughter, Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A - Animal Science, 55, 149-157. 

Rodenburg T.B., Van derHulst-van Arkel, M.C. and KwakkelR.P. (2004). Campylobacter and Salmonella infections on organic broiler farms, Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science, 52, 101-108. 

The effect of probiotic use in chicken production has also been studied by several groups. For example, Kralik el al. (2004) have studied the effect of adding probiotics to the drinking water of avian broilers. They reported an increase of live weights of broilers, an improvement in feed conversion ratios and lower population densities of the pathogenic bacteria E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus in the intestinal contents. 

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