Pests definitions

Contamination by flies may occur directly in a factory, especially if material is allowed to stand unprotected for long periods while being held for processing. Failure to dispose of refuse promptly, particularly outside the plant, frequently creates ideal breeding and feeding places for these pests. Under such circumstances, parts of the adult vinegar fly, its larvae, or eggs, when found in the comminuted product, provide definite evidence of careless and insanitary operations. 

The widespread use of economic poisons has a definite impact on the animal complex on the face of the earth which provides our sustenance. Already we have seen the use of DDT for codling moth control on apples result in a relatively minor pest becoming a serious threat. The same material used as a wonder spray for fly control now fails, after a couple years of common usage, with the appearance of new, resistant strains of flies. Bees and other pollinating insects as well as helpful predators or parasites may be decimated and their important aid be lost by untimely or improper use of most of the newer insecticides. 

Many definitions of sustainable agriculture are reported by literature, but all are related to the basic concept of a profitable crop production with no environmental pollution and depletion of farm and natural resources, including effects on soil, water, and biodiversity (Doran 2002 Francis et al. 2006). Soil solarization seems to fit the fundaments of sustainable agriculture as providing an effective and environmentally safe control of many soilbome pests and more competitive market positions and higher prices to pesticide-free products. 

The need for pest control in tropical crops is definitely on the increase, and this is brought out in the papers of this symposium. These by no means cover this important subject. Omission of discussion of many crops from this program does not depreciate their importance, but time does not allow their inclusion. Literature on pesticide control of tropical crops is accumulating in many scattered publications—for example, tea culture has been adequately covered by Lamb and others in World Crops for May 1954. It is hoped that this symposium will pave the way for future discussions of this important subject. Pest control in tropical agriculture is a challenge to both the scientist and the manufacturing chemist. 

In a very local area in Mexico, the larvae of Phyrdenus muriceus have been found to be an important pest of potatoes. The application of soil insecticides, including aldrin, dieldrin, and chlordan, have given good control in experimental tests. Further work, however, needs to be done with this pest before definite conclusions may be made. As in other countries, the use of DDT applied to the foliage results in healthier plants and greater yields. 

This comprehensive definition makes it elear that a wide number of substances may be eonsidered to be pestieides, and that the eommonality among all pestieides is their ability to provide eontrol over pests. A variety of classifications for pesticides have been developed that are specific for the type of pest controlled. Insecticides, for example, are pesticides that control insects, while herbicides control weeds and fungicides control plant diseases (molds). In addition to these major classifications of pesticides, there are many other classifications. These include nematicides (for nematode control), acaracides (mite control), rodenticides (rodent control), molluscicide (snail and slug control), algacides (algal control), bacteriocides (bacterial control), and defoliants (leaf control). 

Smith, R. F., and H. T. Reynolds. Principles, definitions and scope of integrated pest control, pp. 11-17. In Proceedings of the FAO Symposium on Integrated Pest Control, 11-15 October 1965—Rome. Rome Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1966. 

Improved Economic Injury Levels Through a Better Understanding of the Effects of Low Levels of Herbivory and Subeconomic Pathogen Infections. One of the critical factors in IPM is a realistic definition of economic injury levels for single pests and pest complexes. The understanding of the effect of low levels of herbivory and subeconomic infections by pathogens may help reassess the definition of economic injury levels, due to the evidence that these attacks may actually contribute to an increase in the ability of the plant to withstand future attacks. 

Test methods have been developed for both dormant and summer spray oils to predict accurately the behavior of a given oil, from the viewpoint of both tree or plant response and efficiency against pests. In the earlier days of spray oils, it was difficult to predict the behavior of a given product without actual exhaustive field trials, but by making use of the experience and testing techniques that are now available, spray oils can be selected with definite knowledge as to their behavior under practical usage conditions in the field. 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that works in partnership with nature to produce foods efficiently (Upadhyay et al., 1996). The concept began in U.S.A. in the 1950s, and recently resurfaced in popularity. Although many definitions of IPM have been advanced, two elements are critical ... 

Many of the amendments have been prompted as a result of practical experience and continuing discussion between member states. The increased definition of the composition and conditions of use of soil amendments and pest and disease control products forming Annex II is a good example of the increasing level of detail that the Regulation has embraced. It is well known that the initial intention of the Commission when commencing the development of the Regulation was a fairly basic statement of the need to avoid the use of synthetic chemicals. It soon became clear that much more detailed rules would be required. 

Pesticides occur in detectable amounts throughout the environment in virtually all inhabited areas of the world and in some, if not all, of the uninhabited portions. If our methods of detection were sufficiently sensitive and definitive, there is no part of the earth where we could not now find at least a few molecules of many pesticides in plants, man, animals, soil, water, and air. Pesticides are introduced into the environment in a variety of ways, including direct application in agriculture, in forest pest control, and for control of pests affecting human health. Comparatively small areas of the world are so treated, but transport by unnd, water, and movement of food and feed in commerce results in universal distribution of minute amounts of these compounds. 

The American Medical Association (AMA) has estimated that in 1999, 200 million acres of land had been planted worldwide with transgenic crops. The AMA further indicated that over 25 000 field trials for environmental effects of GMOs had been performed in 45 countries without noted adverse environmental consequences. Despite these conclusions, the limited geographical size and comprehensiveness of such trials confounds definitive conclusions regarding the potential for adverse effects such as enhanced crop pest resistance, out crossing with weedy relatives of crops, reduced biodiversity, nutritional deficiency of food sources, and toxicity to nontarget species. 

In practice, the distinction between these two definitions is somewhat blurred, because for many pest or disease problems a combination of measures is taken in the attempt to achieve control, including both chemical and nonchemical components. The term integrated pest management (IPM) is often used to describe such combination treatments, particularly those departing from the use of chemicals. However, it must be emphasised that the components of the IPM system need to be closely defined for each pest-control situation, and thus IPM in itself does not offer a universal panacea for alternatives to chemicals. The term is merely a loose generic descriptor of a wide variety of multicomponent control programmes. 

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