Other Types of Batteries

Other types of batteries have been introduced to serve specific needs (electric vehicles, electricity storage for grid support, etc.). For this discussion, we have chosen to focus on sodium-sulfur (Na-S) batteries and nickel-chloride-based batteries, which are both so-called high temperature battery systems, and lastly redox flow systems. 

These technologies have one point in common. Unlike the technologies presented hitherto, in these batteries, the electrodes are liquid and are separated by a solid membrane. In the operation of many batteries, the active material will not occupy the same volume in different states of charge. The successive charges and discharges impose mechanical stresses on the electrodes, which are one of the causes of degradation on the scale of the components and, consequently, aging of the element. With liquid electrodes, these phenomena of volumetric expansion/contraction disappear. 

The following sections will discuss these three technologies in turn. 

1 The writing of this chapter owes much to the knowledge of Marion Perrin (affiliation given in footnote 1 of Chapter 11). 

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ZnO displays similar redox and alloying chemistry to the tin oxides on Li insertion [353]. Therefore, it may be an interesting network modifier for tin oxides. Also, ZnSnOs was proposed as a new anode material for lithium-ion batteries [354]. It was prepared as the amorphous product by pyrolysis of ZnSn(OH)6. The reversible capacity of the ZnSn03 electrode was found to be more than 0.8 Ah/g. Zhao and Cao [356] studied antimony-zinc alloy as a potential material for such batteries. Also, zinc-graphite composite was investigated [357] as a candidate for an electrode in lithium-ion batteries. Zinc parhcles were deposited mainly onto graphite surfaces. Also, zinc-polyaniline batteries were developed [358]. The authors examined the parameters that affect the life cycle of such batteries. They found that Zn passivahon is the main factor of the life cycle of zinc-polyaniline batteries. In recent times [359], zinc-poly(anihne-co-o-aminophenol) rechargeable battery was also studied. Other types of batteries based on zinc were of some interest [360]. 

Application of Carbon Materials in Other Types of Batteries.491... 

APPLICATION OF CARBON MATERIALS IN OTHER TYPES OF BATTERIES... 

Zinc has found application in several other types of battery, including industrially important zinc-air cells in which the oxygen of the air is used as the cathodic reactant in a cell such as... 

Electrochemical power sources are a multibillion-dollar-per-year business. Automobile starting batteries represent about 2 billion per year in the United States and over 5 billion per year worldwide. Other types of batteries and fuel cells have sales of over 1.5 billion per year in the United States and over 6 billion per year worldwide (10). In developing countries the market is growing because in many remote areas batteries provide the only electrical power. 

Other types of batteries have been developed, but, with some notable exceptions, they have not yet reached commercial importance. Among these, we may mention flow batteries and high temperature solid state or fused salt batteries. Some of these batteries are rechargeable and some are suited for high capacity applications only. 

The main advantage of metal/air batteries is primarily their high specific energy in comparison with other types of batteries. This is achieved through not requiring to incorporate positive active components within the cell (table 3). 

The lead—acid battery could be adequately evaluated only if compared to the other types of secondary power sources. A theoretical assessment can be made by comparing the electrical, energetic, power and economic parameters of the different sources of electricity, but the relative share of each battery chemistry in practical applications is the most objective evaluation criterion. Table 1.1 summarises the basic energy and power characteristics of six types of secondary power sources which are currently used most widely. Data from the studies of Wentzl [78] and Kohler [79] have been used. It can be seen that the lead—acid battery has inferior specific energy and power characteristics as compared to the other types of batteries. 

The cell voltage is 1.3 V. Eqs. (9.23) and (9.24) are formal equations the exact processes in the nickel-cadmium battery are complex solid-state reactions. More details and other types of batteries are described in special Uterature. ... 

Electrodes. Its chemical inertness, its wide range of usable potential (1.2 to -1.0 V vs. SCE) and the hydrodynamic and structural advantages of its open-pore foam structure make vitreous carbon foam an attractive material for electrodes for lithium-ion and other types of batteries, with many potential applications in electrochemistry.[ l[ ll ]... 

Because of the unusual demands of electric vehicles, tests performed for other types of batteries are poor predictors on the chargeable batteries for electric vehicle. 

Typical discharge curves for the flat-pasted-type stationary cell at various discharge rates at 25°C are shown in Figure 1.29. Generally, the discharge rate for a stationary battery is identified as the hourly rate (the current in amperes that the battery will deliver or the rate hours) rather than the C rate used for other types of batteries. 

MulticeU Bipolar Construction with Single-Activator Reservoir. Lithium anode reserve batteries, using bipolar constraction, are relatively few in number and always developed for specific applications. The bipolar constraction—one component used as hotii the anode collector of one cell and the cathode collector of the next cell in the stack— is not unique to the lithium reserve battery, but an adaptation of techniques used in other types of batteries. There are several advantages of the bipolar constraction ... 

The worldwide secondary battery market is now approximately 20 bilhon annually. A world perspective of the use of secondary hatteries by application is presented in Table 22.1. The lead-acid battery is by far the most popular, with the SLI battery accounting for a major share of the market. This share is declining gradually, due to increasing apphcations for other types of batteries. The market share of the alkaline battery systems is about 25%. A major growth area has been the non-automotive consumer applications for small secondary batteries. Lithium ion batteries have emerged in the last decade to capture a 50% share of the market for small sealed consumer hatteries, as indicated in Table 22.1. The typical characteristics and applications of secondary batteries are summarized in Table 22.2. 

Polarization. The voltage of a metal/air battery drops off more sharply with increasing current than that of other types of batteries because of diffusion and other limitations in the oxygen or air cathode. This means that these air systems are more suited for low- to moderate-power applications than to high-power ones. 

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