Reserves of lithium

World Reserves and Resources. A summary of demonstrated and inferred worldwide reserves of lithium is given in Table 2. The reserve base and the lithium equivalent represent resources in the ground. An overall lithium recoverabiUty of 65% for pegmatites and 33% for brines must be apphed to these values to estabUsh the amount of lithium that could eventually reach the marketplace (15). 

In respect of [19], which count the highest lithium reserves. Table 22.3 shows the easily extractable reserves in stable countries (e-RstbIC) are limited to 6,800,0001 whereas 599,000 mark the limit of the more difficult extractable reserves in stable coimtries (d-RstbIC). This means that the maximum value of lithium reserves in stable countries amounts to 7,399,0001 leaving a total value of 16,981,0001 of RcritC. Since the maximum value of the reserves in stable countries is considerably lower than the global reserves of lithium, it is essentitd to determine to what extent and in which time frame the future use of electric vehicles will push lithium to reach this limit. This obviously also depends on the development of other technologies, especially that requiring lai e amounts of lithium. 

The most significant deposits are in southern Nevada, in the Lake Mead area, and in the McDermitt caldera complex on the Nevada—Oregon border. In the McDermitt caldera, lithium probably originated from volcanic sedimentary rocks deposited in the caldera moat. There is evidence that areas of the caldera were hydrothermically active contributing to enrichment of lithium (14). This and other similar deposits are not economically viable as of this writing. These deposits do represent a significant lithium reserve, however, whenever large expansion in demand occurs. 

Another issue with metals is availability. For example, cobalt is not produced in the United States, but it used extensively in a wide variety of alloys and in the production of one of the most common types of lithium batteries. The availability of cobalt is crucial to several segments of American industry. For example, batteries being developed for use in automobiles powered by alternate energy sources are currently envisioned to use a lithium ion battery that also contains cobalt. However, cobalt is not the only strategic metal, and there is concern about the availability of several metals that are vital to industries in the United States, China, and Japan. There will be competition and stockpiling of strategic metals as the reserves become less accessible. 

A further option is to add a known amount of tracer, such as lithium chloride, or a molybdate, to provide a free reserve of, say, 2.0 to 3.0 ppm Li or Mo, and then measure accurately the actual concentration of tracer present. From this, calculate the volume of the system. 

The many effects of lithium on thyroid physiology and on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and their clinical impact (goiter, hypothyroidism, and hyperthyroidism) have been reviewed (620). Lithium has a variety of effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, but it predominantly inhibits the release of thyroid hormone. It can also block the action of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and enhance the peripheral degradation of thyroxine (620). Most patients have enough thyroid reserve to remain euthyroid during treatment, although some initially have modest rises in serum TSH that normalize over time. 

The most important mineral for the industrial extraction of lithium is spodumene (LiAlSi206), which is found together with lepidolite, petalite and amblygonite (all with Li contents of 4 to 7%) and in salt lakes. The largest known reserves are in Chile (largest known deposit), Australia, USA and Canada. The main producer countries are the USA (North Carolina), Chile, Australia, Russia, Zimbabwe, Brazil and China. The worldwide reserves including the lithium content in salt lakes is estimated to be 7.3 10 t (as lithium), of which 60% is in salt lakes. 

The attractive feature of this mechanism is its ability to account for either A, A, or any in between order of propagation of the presumably dimeric living polymers. Hence, it is applicable to the styrene as well as to the isoprene systems. Nevertheless, this writer has reservations about its validity because the stereospecific polymerization of lithium isoprene seems to demand the presence of Li+ cation in the transition state of propagation. 

Despite the controversial discussion within the community about the future availability of lithium, there is meanwhile little doubt that the resource situation of lithium does not pose a major problem in the medium- and long terms (cf. [18,20,25]). With regard to its geologic occurrence, lithium is available in sufficient quantities. But the distribution of lithium reserves shows a relatively high regional concentration that might have an impact on its short- and mid-term availability. Thus, the economically recoverable reserves and the respective countries have to be examined in more detail to determine if and when a situation of uncertain lithium availability might occur. 

The biggest lithium reserves are located in the so-called lithium triangle on the continent of South America where Chile, Argentina tind Bolivia border on each other. Another big occurrence of lithium brines is in China. Considerable lithium mineral reserves can be foimd in Australia, Canada, the USA and China. The other lithium-producing countries such as Portugal and Zimbabwe have few lithium reserves. 

FIGURE 22.5 Results of lithium demand modeling. Depletion of lithium reserves with different accessibility and under the consideration of different recycling rates. (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)... 

Alkyl lithium polyisoprene ceased to be manufactured in the U.S. in the early 1970 s in favor of polyisoprene polymerized by Ziegler catalysis and because of the greatly improved domestic reserve of natural rubber,Nevertheless, the work that was carried out on the copolymer end-block tire rubbers is a worthwhile addition to our knowledge. Although the idea and the work with this polymer occurred over a decade ago, new insight into the nature of ordered and disordered states and their transition makes this subject relevant in todays world. 

World lithium resources have already been evaluated and quantified by researchers, NGOs and private enterprises, although there is no consensus regarding the figures or the way in which they should be calculated in 2005, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) established that there were 15 million tons (Mt) of lithium reserve base and 6.8 Mt of reserves, while Clarke and Harben mentioned 39.4 Mt of resources and 27.7 Mt of reserve base in 2008. 

Several instrument manufacturers supply flame photometers designed specifically for the determination of sodium, potassium, lithium, and sometimes calcium in blood serum, urine, and other biological fluids. Single-channel and multichannel (two to four channels) instruments are available for these determinations. In the multichannel instruments, each channel can be used to determine a separate element without an internal standard, or one of the channels can be reserved for an internal standard such as lithium. The ratios of the signals from the other channels to the signal of the lithium channel are then taken to compensate for flame noise and noise from fluctuations in reagent flow rate. Flame photometers such as these have been coupled with flow injection systems to automate the sample-introduction process (see Section 33B-3). Typical precisions for flow-injection-analysis-based flame photometric determinations of lithium, sodium, and potassium in serum are on the order of a few percent or less. Automated flow injection procedures require l/KIO the amount of sample and 1/10 the time of batch procedures. -... 

Theoretically, it is possible to obtain energy by the fusion of light atoms, e.g. deuterium with tritium. However, tritium has to be made from lithium, and this is also present in restricted amounts, sufficient to yield energy equivalent to about 60% of our fossil Sun reserves. The fusion of deuterium and deuterium would give virtually unlimited reserves of energy and if the physicists ever succeed in this, they have made a sun on earth, and the energy crisis will be over. 

Lithium batteries use nonaqueous solvents for the electrolyte because of the reactivity of lithium in aqueous solutions. Organic solvents such as acetonitrile, propylene carbonate, and dimethoxyethane and inorganic solvents such as thionyl chloride are typically employed. A compatible solute is added to provide the necessary electrolyte conductivity. (Solid-state and molten-salt electrolytes are also used in some other primary and reserve lithium cells see Chaps. 15, 20, and 21.) Many different materials were considered for the active cathode material sulfur dioxide, manganese dioxide, iron disulfide, and carbon monofluoride are now in common use. The term lithium battery, therefore, applies to many different types of chemistries, each using lithium as the anode but differing in cathode material, electrolyte, and chemistry as well as in design and other physical and mechanical features. 

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