Organization of the Book

This text of the two-volume treatment contains most of the theoretical background necessary to understand experiments in the field of phonons. This background is presented in four basic chapters. Chapter 2 starts with the diatomic linear chain. In the classical theory we discuss the periodic boundary conditions, equation of motion, dynamical matrix, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, acoustic and optic branches and normal coordinates. The transition to quantum mechanics is achieved by introducing the Sohpddingev equation of the vibrating chain. This is followed by the occupation number representation and a detailed discussion of the concept of phonons. The chapter ends with a discussion of the specific heat and the density of states. 

In Chap.3, the theory is generalized to three-dimensional crystals with a basis. Chapter 3 also contains a section dealing with the connection of lattice dynamics and the theory of elasticity. The force constants, dynamical matrix and dispersion relation are illustrated with the help of monoatomic crystals with fee structure. 

While in Chaps.2 and 3 a straightforward formalism is developed, the philosophy in Chap.4 is different in this chapter we are concerned with an interpretation of measured phonon dispersion curves and the information they provide for the interatomic forces. It is an important chapter and certainly not an easy one the difficulties are intrinsic and arise from the complicated nature of the different types of chemical bonds. The chapter contains the study of the lattice dynamics of solid inert gases, ionic crystals, covalent solids, molecular crystals and a qualitative discussion of the lattice dynamics of metals. 

In Chap.5, anharmonic effects are considered. After an illustration of anharmonicity with the help of the diatomic molecule, we derive the free energy of the anharmonic linear chain and discuss the equation of state and the specific heat. The quasi-harmonic approximation worked out in detail for the linear chain is then applied to three-dimensional crystals to obtain the equation of state and thermal expansion. The self-consistent harmonic approximation is the basis for treating the effects of strong anharmonicity. At the end of this chapter we give a qualitative discussion of the response 

I have tried to present both aspects of the subject, descriptive and analytical. The power of simple models to illustrate basic concepts should not be underestimated. Simple models such as simple three-dimensional lattices, the linear chain and even the diatomic molecule are studied at various places in this book. Many figures are included to illustrate both theoretical and experimental results. The interested reader will find all lengthy derivations in an Appendix the basic physical ideas can be understood without the Appendix, but for a deeper understanding of many aspects its content will be helpful. Each chapter contains a number of problems with hints and results. They not only help the reader to exercise newly acquired skills but also contain additional information not contained in the text. It is therefore recommended that readers examine the problems, even if they do not intend to solve them. At the end of each chapter, references to existing literature appear. Despite the inclusion of over 200 references, it is easily possible that I have omitted important papers. If this is the case, it is unintentional and apologies are sincerely offered. 

The practical content of this book is mostly contained in Chapter 5 (gases and liquids) and Chapter 6 (powders and hybrid mixtures) with other chapters providing supporting material. Chapter 2 contains a brief explanation of the nature of static electricity followed by a detailed discussion of the characteristics and effective energies of different static discharges. Since this 

The tingling effects of static are caused by mutual repulsion between strands of hair carrying the same sign of charge, which tends to make them 

Stand up. The phenomena occur either as the result of polarization (2-2.1) or a net charge on the body. When the body is polarized by a strong electric field, the charged strands of hair are both repelled from one another and attracted in the direction of the electric field. This can be especially hair-raising. 

Static electricity hazards and nuisances are typified by the generation of large potentials (0.1-100 kV) by small charging currents (0.01-100 pA) flowing in high resistance circuits (10 -10 Q). This in part differentiates static electricity from other electrical phenomena. For example, stray currents in low resistance circuits are typically of the order 1 A for potential differences of the order 1 volt (A-4-1.3). The electric field at any point in relation to a conductor is proportional to its potential, while magnetic field is proportional to 

The electrostatic behavior of intrinsically nonconductive substances, such as most pure thermoplastics and saturated hydrocarbons, is generally governed by chemical species regarded as trace contaminants. These are components that are not deliberately added and which may be present at less than detectable concentrations. Since charge separation occurs at interfaces, both the magnitude and polarity of charge transfer can be determined by contaminants that are surface active. This is particularly important for nonconductive liquids, where the electrostatic behavior can be governed by contaminants present at much less than 1 ppm (2-1.3). 

It is important to mention briefly the issues of notation and units. A glossary of frequently used symbols is given in Appendix A. Note that the definition of thermodynamic work used here is the work done on a system (e.g., dw = -p dV). As a result, the first law of thermodynamics has the form dE= dq + dw. Note also that E is used for the thermodynamic internal energy and U for the potential energy instead of the lUPAC choices of 

U and V respectively. Systeme International (SI) units, described in Appendix B, are used extensively but not slavishly. Chemically convenient quantities such as the gram (g), cubic centimeter (cm ), and hter (L = dm =10 cm ) are still used where useful—densities in g cm , concentrations in mol L , molar masses in g. Conversions of such quantities into their SI equivalents is trivially easy. The situation with pressure is not so simple, since the SI pascal is a very awkward unit. Throughout the text, both bar and atmosphere are used. Generally bar = 10 Pa) is used when a precisely measured pressure is involved, and atmosphere = 760 Torr = 1.01325 X 10 Pa) is used to describe casually the ambient air pressure, which is usually closer to 1 atm than to 1 bar. Standard states for all chemical substances are officially defined at a pressure of 1 bar normal boiling points for liquids are still understood to refer to 1-atm values. The conversion factors given inside the front cover will help in coping with non-SI pressures. 

Chapters IV-XV contain the descriptions of the experiments, which are numbered 1 to 48. In addition. Chapters V and VI each contain some separate introductory material that is pertinent to all the experiments in the given chapter. Each figure, equation, and table in a given experiment is identified by a single number e.g.. Fig. 1, Eq. (8), Table 2. For cross references, double numbering is used e.g.. Fig. 38-1 refers to Fig. 1 in Exp. 38 and Eq. (V-8) refers to Eq. (8) in the introductory part of Chapter V. 

Chapters XVI-XX contain a variety of irrformation on experimental procedtrres and devices. This includes the theory and practice of many types of electrical measrrrements. 

Chapter XXI provides an introduction to least-squares fitting procedures and a discussion of how to assess the magnitude of random errors and how to judge the quality of any given fit to a set of data points. 

This book, therefore, is a self-contained introduction to the discipline of Statistics and its use in therapeutic confirmatory clinical trials. The first part of the book provides introductory comments about the discipline of Statistics and lays the foundations for our later discussions in the context of pharmaceutical trials. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the process of new drug development and the role of clinical trials in this process. The categories of different types of clinical trials are identified and discussed so that you will understand thetypes of data collectedin them. 

Chapters 3 and 4 discuss how research questions are asked and answered in statistical language during clinical trials, and introduce the study designs and experimental methodologies that are used to acquire optimum quality data with which to answer our research questions. Chapter 5 discusses statistical ways of describing and summarizing these data. Chapter 6 

This book is divided into eight chapters. Each of the first seven chapters centers around a different class of reactions. The sections within each chapter define subsets of the reaction classes. For example, Chapter 2 deals extensively with electrophilic substitutions as a means of forming C-glycosides. However, each section within the chapter deals with methods used for the formation or introduction of specific groups at the C-glycosidic linkage. 

Chapter 8 is different from the first seven chapters. Instead of being divided into sections, it discusses the chronology of the evolution of C-di and trisaccharide syntheses from 1983 through 1994. The final section speculates on the future of C-glycoside chemistry with respect to new synthetic methodologies. It is the hope of the authors that this book will serve as a comprehensive review of C-glycoside chemistry and a valuable reference tool. 

Every chapter has been prepared in a self-consistent form and includes a particular notation that is given at its end (although the most frequently occurring variables and parameters have the same notation throughout the book). Thus, a reader with a preliminary knowledge of the subject can go directly to any of the chapters. However, for a reader approaching the subject for the first time, it will be much more convenient to follow the order in which the book is organized. 

The effect (or lack of effect) of crosslinks on basic physical properties of thermosetting polymers is discussed in Chapter 10, while the effect on elastic and viscoelastic properties is analyzed in Chapter 11. Yielding and fracture of neat and modified thermosetting polymers are discussed in Chapters 12 and 13. Finally, the very important problem of the durability of polymer networks is presented in Chapter 14. 

The basic questions to be answered in any chemistry experiment, or indeed any theoretical investigation, are why and how chemical reactions (unimolecular or bimolecular) occur. With laser chemistry one hopes to elucidate whether the presence of laser radiation in the reaction zone influences the reaction by its interaction with the reagents or reaction intermediates, or whether it only serves as a probe to establish the presence of a particular species in the entrance, intermediate or exit channels of the reaction. These fundamental objectives, which are germane to the understanding of laser chemistry, are detailed in this textbook, together with a wealth of representative examples. 

Introduction to lasers, laser spectroscopy, instrumentation and measurement methodology 

At the centre of any laser chemistry experiment is the reaction zone, on which normally all interest and instramental efforts are focused. Specific configurations of the reaction region, and the experimental apparams used, differ widely these depend on the namre of the chemical reactants, how they are prepared for interaction and what answers are sought in a particular investigation. Hence, in this chapter, the discussion of specific components (like vacuum chambers, flow systems, particle beam generation, etc.) are largely omitted (further details are given where specific examples are discussed in later chapters). 

Around the reaction zone one can identify input and output channels for atoms/molecules and radiation. Broadly speaking, the input channel(s) for atoms and molecules constitute the provision of reagents to the reaction zone. This provision may happen in a variety 

One can distinguish two main input channels for laser radiation, namely one for the preparation of reagents or reaction intermediates and one for the probing of individual parts or the whole of the reaction, from reagents through intermediates to products. Both channels do not necessarily have to be present. Depending on the nature of the experiment, one channel may be sufficient to provide the required information, e.g. in cases in which a reaction is initiated by laser radiation and its products are probed by nonlaser means, or, conversely, where only the products of a chemical process are probed by a laser. 

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With 50 articles, organization of the book was difficult certain techniques could equally well have appeared in more than one place. The organizational intent of the Editors was to group techniques that have a similar physical basis, or that provide similar types of information. This is not the traditional organization of an encyclopedia, where articles are ordered alphabetically. Such ordering seemed less useful here, in part because many of the techniques have multiple possible acronyms (an Acronyms Glossary is provided to help the reader). 

The summaries below provide an overview of the content and organization of the book chapter-by-chapter and assist in quickly locating a particular area of interest. 

The organization of the book is as follows The first chapter. Overview, describes the basic facts, concepts, and a brief account of its history. This chapter is written at a general physics level and can be read as an independent unit. The last section, Historical Remarks, is an integrated part of the presentation of basic concepts in STM. As an introductory chapter of a textbook, it is not intended to be an authoritative and comprehensive treatment of the history of STM. However, serious efforts have been made to ensure the authenticity and accuracy of the historical facts. In addition to conducting an extensive literature search, I have consulted several key scientists in STM and related fields. 

The following comments on the organization of the book may prove useful to the prospective reader. It is divided into two parts. Part I, which includes Chapters 1-6, covers the principles that are basic to all of the applications. The applications are described in Part II, embracing Chapters 7-11. The material in Part I has been written to be read sequentially that is, each chapter deliberately builds on the material developed in all preceding chapters. In Part II, however, the aim has been to keep the chapters as independent of each other as possible without excessive repetition, although each one, of course, depends on all the material in Part I. This plan is advantageous to a reader whose immediate goal is to study only one particular area of application, since he can proceed directly to it, whichever it may be it also allows the teacher to select which applications to cover in a course too short to include ail of them, or, if time permits, to take them all but in an order different from that chosen here. 

The organization of the book is traditional. We have, however, been selective in our choice of topics in order to be able to devote a significant portion J of the book to the pericyclic reaction theory and its applications and to include a chapter on photochemistry. 

Hie organization of the book docs not fit the format of all organic texts. My answer to that statement is that 1 have used this book successfully in various forms for the past five years while using the following texts ... 

The goal to reach such a wide and diverse audience may be overambitious, but a good blend of basic principles and detailed information about combinatorial technologies should really be useful for many workers, or future workers, in the field. The homogeneous organization of the book should also be instrumental for the reader and for the student to receive a balanced but complete overview of this new and exciting discipline and hopefully attract the attention of new talented scientists, or soon-to-be scientists, who will eventually contribute to the future development of combinatorial technologies. 

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