Used in This Book

To help you navigate this book efficiently, 1 use a few style conventions  

Website addresses, or URLs, are shown in a special monofont typeface, like this. If you re reading this in an ebook, those links are clickable. 

Numbered steps that you need to follow are set in bold. 

Sidebars present technical information that you don t have to know but that might interest those of you who want to understand the technology behind the function. 

We have organized this book in a logical progression of topics your second semester organic chemistry course may progress similarly. In addition, we set up the following conventions to make navigating this book easier  

Italics introduce new terms that you need to know. 

Bold text highlights keywords within a bulleted list. 

1/ We make extensive use of illustrations of structures and reactions. While reading, try to follow along in the associated figures, whether they be structures or reactions. 

You don t have a whole lot of money invested in this book, so don t feel obliged to read what you don t need. Concentrate on the topic(s) in which you need help. Feel free to skip over any text in a gray shaded box (which we refer to as sidebars). Although interesting, they ciren t required reading. 

For the most part, when I use a specific math word or expression, I define it right then and there. For example, if you read a math word problem about a regular hexagon, you immediately find the definition of regular (all sides and all angles are the same measure), so you don t have to hunt around to understand what s being asked. 

You ll find lots of cross-referencing in the chapters. If a problem requires the use of the quadratic formula, I send you to the chapter or section where I introduce that formula. Each section and each chapter stands by itself — you don t really need to go through the chapters sequentially. You re more than welcome to go back and forth as much as you want. This isn t a murder mystery where the whole plot will be exposed if you go to the end first. When reading this book, do it your way  

Math can get pretty technical — whether you want it to or not. So you ll find this book to be pretty self-contained. All you need to get you through the technical formulas and complicated algebraic manipulations is found right here in this book. You won t need a table of values or computer manual to understand what 1 present here. 

Here are a couple of conventions you find in For Dummies books  

I use italics to emphasize new words and technical terms, which 1 follow with eeisy-to-understand definitions. 

Bold text marks keywords in bulleted lists and highlights the general steps to follow in a numbered list. 

In addition, I ve tried to organize this book in approximately the same order of topics found in a one-semester general chemistry course. I ve included some figures for you to look at refer to them as you read along. Also, pay particular attention to the reactions that 1 use. I ve attempted to use reactions that you may be feimiliar with or ones that are extremely important industrially. 

One of the most charming aspects of astrology, in my opinion, is that virtually all birth charts, calendars, and books on the subject are strewn with tiny, mysterious-looking symbols. Until you know those symbols by heart, their presence can be distracting and confusing. That s why I usually spell out the names of the signs, planets, and aspects. With actual birth charts, however, words are insufficient. I present those horoscopes just the way a professional astrologer would — covered with symbols. 

Memorizing those symbols is incredibly useful. But you don t have to do it. Instead, you can turn to the Cheat Sheet at the beginning of this book, where you can find a neat list of every symbol you need to know. The Cheat Sheet enables you to translate the symbols back into English. That way, when you re looking at a birth chart and you see something like this  

In this book, whenever 1 refer to a planetary position such as the one in the preceding example, 1 describe it as 26°23 Gemini. I usually don t spell out the words degree (°) and minute ( ). I assume that you know them. On birth charts, 1 go further and omit those two tiny symbols. Instead, the charts in this book announce planetary positions by using boldface type for the degrees and regular type for the minutes, as follows 26 23. 

Science progressed more rapidly in the last 200 years than it had in the few thousand years previous. A great deal of this success came from the agreement among scientist to create and use a set of standard conventions. The two most important conventions are the periodic table and the international system of units, called SI units. SI units are based on the metric system, and it s more common to see temperature expressed as Celsius than Fahrenheit. And you see lengths expressed in meters instead of inches and feet. Weights and mass are expressed in terms of grams instead of pounds or stone. 

And the following conventions throughout this text make everything consistent and easy to understand  

New and key terms appear in italics and are closely followed by an easy-to-understand definition. 

Sidebars are highlighted in gray-shaded boxes so they re easy to pick out. They contain fun facts and curious asides, but none of their information is crucial to your understanding of inorganic chemistry. Feel free to just skip over them if you prefer. 

You ll find a selection of helpful icons nicely nestled along the margins of this workbook. Think of them as landmcirks, familiar signposts to guide you as you cruise the highways of chemistry. 

Within already pithy summciries of chemical concepts, passages marked by this icon represent the pithiest must-know bits of information. You ll need to know this stuff to solve problems. 

Sometimes there s an easy way and a hard way. This icon alerts you to passc es intended to highlight an easier way. It s worth your while to linger for a moment. You may find yourself nodding quietly as you jot down a grateful note or two. 

Chemistry may be a practical science, but it also has its pitfalls. This icon raises a red flag to direct your attention to easily made errors or other triclty items. Pay attention to this material to save yourself from needless frustration. 

Within each section of a chapter, this icon announces, Here ends theory and Let the practice begin. Alongside the icon is an example problem that employs the very concept covered in that section. An answer and explanation accompany each practice problem. 

If you ve read other For Dummies books, you ll recognize the icons used in this book, but here s the quickie lowdown for those of you who aren t familiar with them  

This icon gives you a tip on the quickest, easiest way to perform a task or conquer a concept. This icon highlights stuff that s good to know and stuff that ll save you time and/or frustration. 

The Remember icon is a memory jog for those really important things you shouldn t forget. 

I use this icon when safety in doing a particular activity, especially mixing chemicals, is described. 

I don t use this icon very much because I ve kept the content pretty basic. But in those cases where I ve expanded on a topic beyond the basics, I warn you with this icon. You can safely skip this material, but you may want to look at it if you re interested in a more in-depth description. 

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Abbreviations and symbols commonly used in this book include ... 

Oxygen is a colourless gas which condenses to a pale blue liquid, b.p. 90 K, which is markedly paramagnetic indicating the presence of unpaired electrons (p. 229). Simple valence bond theory (as used in this book) would indicate the structure... 

AH rights reserved (including those of translation in other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form -by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means — nor transmitted or translated into machine Language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. 

Absolute ethyl alcohol. Ethyl alcohol of a high degree of purity is frequently required in preparative organic chemistry. For some purposes alcohol of ca. 99 -5 per cent, purity is satisfactory this grade may be purchased (the absolute alcohol of commerce), or it may be conveniently prepared by the dehydration of rectified spirit with quicklime. Rectified spirit is the constant boiling point mixture which ethyl alcohol forms with water, and usually contains 95 6 per cent, of alcohol by weight. Wherever the term rectified spirit is used in this book, approximately 95 per cent, ethyl alcohol is to be understood. 

The electronic theory of organic chemistry, and other developments such as resonance theory, and parallel developments in molecular orbital theory relating to aromatic reactivity have been described frequently. A general discussion here would be superfluous at the appropriate point a brief summary of the ideas used in this book will be given ( 7- )-... 

The compactness properties are closely connected with the reflexivity of spaces. On that score we formulate two theorems widely used in this book (Vainberg, 1972). 

On this table, the Arrhenius number E/RT was designated by e, but this symbol is already used in this book for the empty fraction in a packed bed. The correct symbol for E/RT = y is used here. On the last line in this table the derivative of the heat removal rate is given ... 

Figure 1.2 Proteins are built up by amino acids that are linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain, (a) Schematic diagram of an amino acid. Illustrating the nomenclature used in this book. A central carbon atom (Ca) is attached to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a side chain (R). (b) In a polypeptide chain the carboxyl group of amino acid n has formed a peptide bond, C-N, to the amino group of amino acid + 1. One water molecule is eliminated in this process. The repeating units, which are called residues, are divided into main-chain atoms and side chains. The main-chain part, which is identical in all residues, contains a central Ca atom attached to an NH group, a C =0 group, and an H atom. The side chain R, which is different for different residues, is bound to the Ca atom.

Decision trees are not used in this book since they are most useful when targeted to a specific process attempts to generate comprehensive matrices rapidly lead to extremely complex schemes. Instead, the book should be used to help generate suitable matrices or to supplement the decision-making steps in published matrices such as [ 199 ]. Many of the decision steps, such as the conditions under which discharges of some specified effective energy may occur, are not properly understood and continue to be controversial. 

The term system is used in this book to mean an aggregate of components the term component refers to an entity that is considered as a unit and not decomposed for analysis. 

A uniform definition of a failure and a method of classifying failures is essential if data from different sources are to be compared. The anatomy of a failure includes the initiating or root cause of a failure that is propagated by contributory causes and results in a failure mode—the effect by which a failure occurs or is observed. Modes include failure to operate, no output, failure to alarm on demand. The end result of a failure sequence is the failure effect, such as no fluid is pumped to the absorber, or a tank overflows. As discussed in Appendix A of IEEE Std. 500-1984, only the equipment failure mode is relevant for data that are needed in a CPQRA. The failure model used in this book is based upon those in the IEEE publication and IPRDS. ... 

SAIC provided much of the data used in this book from its proprietary files of previously analyzed and selected information. Since these data were primarily from the nuclear power industry, a literature search and industry survey described in Chapter 4 were conducted to locate other sources of data specific to the process equipment types in the CCPS Taxonomy. Candidate data resources identified through this effort were reviewed, and the appropriate ones were selected. Applicable failure rate data were extracted from them for the CCPS Generic Failure Rate Data Base. The resources that provided failure information are listed in Table 5.1 with data reference numbers used in the data tables to show where the data originated. 

Process severity The indication of the degree of aggressiveness of the process medium on the hardware aggressiveness would include erosion, stress, corrosion, temperature, blockage, etc. Four categories of severity are used in this book Clean, General Industry, Moderately Severe, Severe. (See Chapter 2 for further explanation of these categories.)... 

Most of the scale factors in this table are from the recent paper of Wong. The HF/6-31G(d) and MP2(Full) scale factors are the traditional ones computed by Pople and coworkers and cited by Wong. Note that the MP2 scale factor used in this book is the one for MP2(Full) even though our jobs are run using the (defriultj frozen core approximation. Scott and Radom computed the MP2(FC) and HF/3-21G entries in the table, but this work came to our attention only just as this book was going to press. 

The notation used in this book is in terms of first quantization. The electronic Hamilton operator, for example, is written as (eq. (3.23))... 

Since the term hydration refers to aqueous solutions only, the word solvation was introduced as a general term for the process of forming a solvate in solution. The terms solvation and heat of solvation were introduced at a time when little or nothing was known about polar molecules. We know now that, when an atomic ion is present in a solvent, the molecular dipoles are subject to the ionic field, whose intensity falls off in 1/r2. We cannot draw a sphere round the ion and say that molecules within this sphere react with the ion to form a solvated ion, while molecules outside do not. The only useful meaning that can now be attached to the term solvation is the total interaction between ion and solvent. As already mentioned, this is the sense in which the term is used in this book. 

As the science of organic chemistry slowly grew in the 19th century, so too did the number of known compounds and the need for a systematic method of naming them. The system of nomenclature we ll use in this book is that devised by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC, usually spoken as eye-you-pac). 

In addition to their systematic names, many simple alkyl halides are also named by identifying first the alkyl group and then the halogen, for example, CH3T can be called either iodomethane or methyl iodide. Such names are well entrenched in the chemical literature and in daily usage, but they won t be used in this book. 

Since the year 2001, the species name Lingulodinium polyedrum (Stein) Dodge 1989 is widely used in place of Gonyaulax polyedra Stein 1883. Considering that many important papers on dinoflagel-late luminescence have been published using the old name, the name Gonyaulax is used in this book. 

The resonance interaction of chlorine with the benzene ring can be represented as shown in 13 or 14, and both of these representations have been used in the literature to save space. However, we shall not use the curved-arrow method of 13 since arrows will be used in this book to express the actual movement of electrons in reactions. We will use representations like 14 or else write out the canonical forms. The convention used in dashed-line formulas like 14 is that bonds that are present in all canonical forms are drawn as solid lines, while bonds that are not present in all forms are drawn as dashed lines. In most resonance, a bonds are not involved, and only the n or unshared electrons are put in, in different ways. This means that if we write one canonical form for a molecule, we can then write the others by merely moving n and unshared electrons. 

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