Research questions

The research work of SubChem was determined by three higher-ranking questions  

In doing so, the first question essentially aims at gaining a better understanding of innovations related to hazardous substances in the supply chains in order to deduce indications as to how the actors within these innovation systems can optimise their efforts to minimise risk. The second and third questions are concerned with how the actors in the innovation system can achieve more safety with regard to the objective of preventing and reducing chemicals-related (eco)toxicological risks. 

Risk management is understood in a broad sense in this context i.e. risk prevention or risk avoidance, dealing with accepted risks (risk management in a narrower sense) or reduction of intolerable risks. 

Theoretical views concerning epistemiology and systems theory, ethical arguments (animal testing) as well as limited financial, time and human resources are important factors as reasons for these fundamental limits to realisation. 

2 Case studies, hypotheses, model understanding of chemicals-related innovation systems 

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Wenger SJ, Roy AH, Jackson CR, Bernhardt ES, Carter TL, EilosoS, Gibson CA, Hession WC, Kaushal SS, Marti E, Meyer JL, Palmer MA, Paul MJ, Purcell AH, Ramirez A, Rosemond AD, Schofield KA, Sudduth EB, Walsh CJ (2009) Twenty-six key research questions in urban stream ecology an assessment of the state of the science. J N Am Benthol Soc 28 1080-1098... 

Many of the frontier research questions outlined in Chapters 4 and 5 can be profitably attacked by adequately supported groups led by a single principal investigator or by multidisciplinary collaborations between small research groups. 

Reid and Shah (2007) have provided evidence supporting pre-laboratory exercises. However, pre-experimental activities constitute a phase that most often is missing from laboratory irrstruction. According to research findings, only about 3% of the laboratory time is applied to developing research questions for experiments (Tobin Capie, 1982 Neber Heumarm-Ruprecht, 2006). 

The above six teaching activities, used in an ordinary educational context, were investigated in order to probe the influence of the modelhng activities on students learning (Ferreira, 2006). Two research questions guide the cmrent discussion ... 

Data gathered in the lessons were used to produce case studies for each of the groups of students because such case studies yield rich descriptions of events that are presented in a chronological narrative that incorporates the researcher s observations. Due to the possible inclusion of such an interpretation of the data, case studies go beyond simple descriptions of the situation and support the analysis of the phenomenon being studied (Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2000). In order to discuss the research questions, we browsed the original case studies to identify evidence of how the students dealt with the levels of representation. Whenever it is appropriate, such evidence is included in the later sections of this chapter. 

In order to organise our discussion, the results are presented separately for each of the research questions. However, due to the emphases being adopted here, we... 

In order to address this research question, we browsed the original case studies to identify evidence of how the students dealt with the levels of representation and of any possible relationship between such students activities and any of the elements of the modelling-based teaching. In the following discussion, the most relevant elements of this teaching are emphasised. 

Research Question 2 What capability did the students have both to visualise the three levels of representation and to move between them during this modelling-based teaching ... 

The following research questions were addressed in the investigation ... 

The main outcomes of the analysis of knowledge tests (details of performance on the tests can be obtained from the authors) and teachers reflective diaries are presented as answers to the research questions. 

The computational chemists were able to form collaborations with their fellow physical chemists. Some of the research questions dealt with molecular conformation and spectroscopy. The 1970s were full of small successes such as finding correlations between calculated and experimental properties. Some of these correlations were published. Even something so grand as the de novo design of a pharmaceutical was attempted but was somewhat beyond reach. 

All clinical trials should have a pre-specified research question, which may be stated in the form of a primary hypothesis (or possibly a few primary hypotheses). An objective outcome measure or measures should also be clearly identified, such as the results of a biochemical test or the score on a validated scale. This allows statistical tests to be applied in order to assess the likelihood that any differences in response between treatment groups resulted from the active treatment and were not due to chance. 

The cost of completing a clinical trial to answer a particular research question will depend on a number of factors including ... 

The specific research questions that have important clinical implications include the following ... 

To obtain an answer to the research questions posed, pro-active safety indicators used in today s chemical process industry were analysed and the deviations upon which they are based were compared with deviations present in the accident trajectories of 70 recent accidents. By comparing these two sets of deviations, it was observed that although re-occurring deviations with no direct perceived safety related consequences were present in the majority of accident trajectories they were nevertheless not addressed by the commonly used pro-active safety indicators. These so-called indirect perceived safety related deviations may therefore be more important indications of a possible accident than was thought previously. 

Based on the results of the analysis the first research question could be answered affirmative. Precursors (defined as re-occurring deviations in an operational process) do exist and can often be obtained from everyday quality, maintenance and reliability data. 

This Chapter starts with an example of an actual accident, that occurred in spite of all the measures and indicators implemented to prevent it from happening. Subsequently, some important safety concepts are defined to prevent confusion and misinterpretations. Then it is discussed why in spite of the developments in safety scope and environment since the industrial revolution measuring safety is still a problem. The Chapter ends by presenting the research scope and the derived research questions. 

Figure 5 A graphical representation from the overall research question.

If it is assumed that precursors can be identified in a scientific way, the next research question can be formulated. By using only precursors the elimination of all possible accidents is extremely unlikely. Retrieving precursors and acting upon them can be seen as a sort of fire fighting approach. It is more important to devise pro-active measures to discover the underlying factors, causing the possible accidents. Subsequently companies can direct resources at these identified causal factors and possible accidents can actually be prevented. The next research question is therefore formulated as ... 

Assuming that both previous research questions can be scientifically founded, a better understanding of why accidents still occur despite all existing measures can be obtained. From both the previous questions the third research question can be derived, which is formulated as ... 

Answering all four questions will help theory and practice in where to look for signs and derive causal factors for accidents, and show why accidents still occur in spite of all measures currently taken. It is inevitable that some accidents will occur, because not all accidents can be foreseen and prevented. The next Chapter will describe the underlying research process and will present the methodology of how all four research questions will be approached. 

The theoretical and practical problem is analysed, and from the observations facts are gathered to deduce a hypothesis. Subsequently a provisional design is generated from the observed facts and from the analysed practical problems. This provisional design is evaluated in practice and the results are analysed to confirm or reject the hypothesis and develop or refine it. Finally, the enhanced design is re-applied in practice to derive the answers posed by the research questions. The result of the research is a newly developed method informed by cause-effect knowledge, see Figure 7. 

The choice of the research questions, type, and methodology all have consequences for the chosen research methods, which will be discussed in the next sub-Section. 

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