Organic production system standards

Fig. 2.1 Logical framework for organic production systems (redrawn with permission from Leifert et al., 2007). Shaded area represents agronomic practices prescribed or recommended under organic and other low input farming standards.

Animal welfare is an issue that is, at the moment, subject to these kinds of differentiation regarding standards and assurance schemes (Roux and Miele, 2005). A number of initiatives have been taken both within and in parallel to organic production systems, all with the aim of improving farm animal welfare, but with rather diverse standards and expectations. 

The standards and rules laid down to accomplish organic production place several restrictions on diet and feeding. These are detailed in Chapter 2. A main aim of this book is to present advice on how the appropriate diets can be formulated and how feeding programmes can be integrated into an organic production system. 

Canadian General Standards Board (2006) National Standard of Canada, Organic Production Systems Permitted Substances List. Document CAN/CGSB-32.311-2006. Government of Canada, Ottawa. 

Several standard-sized alternative egg-laying breeds are available worldwide. In the USA this includes Rhode Island Reds, New Hampshires, Barred and White Plymouth Rock, and Buff Orpingtons. There appears to be a lack of published peer-reviewed research comparing the productivity of these breeds in an organic production system. Many organic egg producers in the USA keep a flock for multiple years and run multiple ages together. The choice of a different coloured breed each year makes it possible to keep track of the age of each of the hens in these flocks. 

Zealand, was established in 1983 and is the trading name of the New Zealand Biological Producers and Consumers Council Inc. Bio-Gro services organic production systems and its key functions include setting of standards, inspection and certification, promotion of the Bio-Gro trademark and promotion of research and development. To better service the massive growth experienced in the last 2 years, Bio-Gro recently subcontracted inspection services to SGS International. This has necessitated a steep rise in fees for licensees. In 1999 Bio-Gro gained IFOAM certification which has helped facilitate market access into Europe though there are still some issues to be resolved (see section 13.2.5). 

Owing to the prohibition of chemosynthetic pesticides under organic farming standards, there is a greatly reduced availability of intervention/treatment-based methods for disease and pest control in organic fruit production systems. The efficacy of the permitted biological control, extract or mineral element (e.g. S and Cu)-based crop protection products is also usually lower than of chemosynthetic pesticides. Permitted plant protection products show efficacies of between 60 and 80% while chemosynthetic fungicides and pesticides often have efficacy levels >95% (Tamm et al., 2004). 

Crop rotation is the keystone of organic cropping systems and its importance is emphasized by all organic crop production standards, not only for its role in crop protection, but also for its contribution to soil fertility. Soil fertility may influence the severity of disease infection or offset its effects by accelerating the build-up of yield before the disease takes its toll. This aspect is considered further in Section 18.4.4. 

ANSI American National Standards Institute, a private organization that is engaged in creating voluntary standards or characteristics and performance of materials, products, systems, and services. 

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a not-for-profit organization that provides a forum for the development and publication of voluntary consensus standards for materials, products, systems, and services.67 One ASTM committee (E27) develops standardized physical and chemical test methods on the hazard potential of chemicals, including but not limited to reactive hazards. The committee has developed standard analytical methods for calorimetry studies in addition to a standard guide for determining binary chemical compatibility (ASTM, 2000). 

P.V.23, also referred to as Carbazole Violet, is a universally useful product. Its color, a bluish violet shade, is not accessible with other Pigments. P.V.23 is used in almost all media which are typically colored with pigments. The list of suitable systems ranges from coatings and paints to plastics, printing inks, and other special-purpose media. P.V.23 is entirely fast to many organic solvents. At standardized conditions (Sec. 1.6.2.1), it is fast to alcohols, esters, and aliphatic hydrocarbons as well as to plasticizers such as dibutyl and dioctyl phthalate. Other solvents, such as ketones, are colored slightly (step 4). 

There are limited options for curative control allowed under organic agriculture guidelines, which vary from country to country. Curatives are inputs to the crop production system that are applied after a pest or pathogen has established in the crop, and threatens to reduce yields if action is not taken. Table 4.1 provides a representative list of botanically derived pesticides, microbial agents and other naturally available materials typically approved under organic standards. These materials vary in their toxicity levels and non-target effects. 

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