Oil and natural gas

Proved Global Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Reserves as of January 2007 

By Region and/or by Nation Oil Reserves in Billion (109) Barrels Percent of Global Oil Reserves Reserves in Quadrillion (1015) ft3 Percent of Natural Gas Reserves Coal Reserves in Billion (109) Short Tons Percent of Global Coal Reserves 

Post-Oil Energy Technology After the Age of Fossil Fuels 

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National governments play an extensive role in assessing and licensing decommissioning options. Most countries which have offshore oil and natural gas installations have laws governing decommissioning. 

The International Offshore Oil and Natural Gas Exploration and Production Industry (1996), Decommissioning Offshore Oil and Gas Installations Finding the Right Balance ... 

Chemists make compounds and strive to understand their reactions. My own interest lies in the chemistry of the compounds of the elements carbon and hydrogen, called hydrocarbons. These make up petroleum oil and natural gas and thus are in many ways essential for everyday life. They generate energy and heat our houses, fuel our cars and airplanes and are raw materials for most manmade materials ranging from plastics to pharmaceuticals. Many of the chemical reactions essential to hydrocarbons are catalyzed by acids and proceed through positive ion intermediates, called carbocations. 

Another area of my post-Nobel research that turned into a major continuing effort evolved from the realization that our hydrocarbon resources, the marvelous gift of nature in the form of petroleum oil and natural gas, are finite and not renewable. 

Recognized Oil and Natural Gas Reserves (in billion tons) from 1960 to 1990... 

Trends in commercial fuel, eg, fossd fuel, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, production and consumption in the United States and in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, are shown in Tables 2 and 3. These trends indicate (6,13) (/) a significant resurgence in the production and use of coal throughout the U.S. economy (2) a continued decline in the domestic U.S. production of cmde oil and natural gas lea ding to increased imports of these hydrocarbons (qv) and (J) a continued trend of energy conservation, expressed in terms of energy consumed per... 

As shown in Table 8, U.S. distribution of oil and natural gas reserves is centered in Alaska, Cahfomia, Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and the U.S. outer-continental shelf. Alaska reserves include both the Pmdhoe Bay deposits and the Cook Inlet fields. Cahfomia deposits include those in Santa Barbara, the Wilmington Eield, the Elk Hills Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 at Bakersfield, and other offshore oil deposits. The Yates Pield, Austin Chalk formation, and Permian Basin are among the producing sources of petroleum and natural gas in Texas. 

The market penetration of synthetic fuels from biomass and wastes in the United States depends on several basic factors, eg, demand, price, performance, competitive feedstock uses, government incentives, whether estabUshed fuel is replaced by a chemically identical fuel or a different product, and cost and availabiUty of other fuels such as oil and natural gas. Detailed analyses have been performed to predict the market penetration of biomass energy well into the twenty-first century. A range of from 3 to about 21 EJ seems to characterize the results of most of these studies. 

Hexane refers to the straight-chain hydrocarbon, C H branched hydrocarbons of the same formula are isohexanes. Hexanes include the branched compounds, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, 2,3-dimethylbutane, and the straight-chain compound, / -hexane. Commercial hexane is a narrow-boiling mixture of these compounds with methylcyclopentane, cyclohexane, and benzene (qv) minor amounts of and hydrocarbons also may be present. Hydrocarbons in commercial hexane are found chiefly in straight-mn gasoline which is produced from cmde oil and natural gas Hquids (see Gasoline AND OTHER MOTOR fuels Gas,natural). Smaller volumes occur in certain petroleum refinery streams. 

Computer controls are likewise used for stove operation, to control deUvery of the hot blast. High hot blast temperatures are generally desirable, as these reduce the coke rate. Control of the flame temperature in the raceway is effected by controlled additions to the hot blast, primarily of moisture. Injectants into the tuyeres such as coal, oil, and natural gas are often used to replace some of the coke. The effect of these injectants on flame temperature must be accounted for, and compensation is performed by lowering moisture or adding oxygen. 

The high cost of coal handling and preparation and treatment of effluents, compounded by continuing low prices for cmde oil and natural gas, has precluded significant exploitation of coal as a feedstock for methanol. A small amount of methanol is made from coal in South Africa for local strategic reasons. Tennessee Eastman operates a 195,000-t/yr methanol plant in Tennessee based on the Texaco coal gasification process to make the methyl acetate intermediate for acetic anhydride production (15). 

Applications. The high heat tolerance and good salt compatibiUty of welan gum indicate its potential for use as an additive in several aspects of oil and natural gas recovery. Welan also has suspension properties superior to xanthan gum, which is desirable in oil-field drilling operations and hydraulic fracturing projects. It is compatible with ethylene glycol, and a welan—ethylene glycol composition that forms a viscous material useful in the formulation of insulating materials has been described (244). 

Prices of phenolic resins vary substantially depending on the appHcation. In 1995, the price of general-purpose and semisoHds was 1.50— 1.80/kg, whereas epoxy-hardener grades can exceed 2.20/kg. Because raw materials of phenoHc resins are derived from cmde oil and natural gas, the prices of phenohc resins depend on the prices of these resources. 

In the 1980s, however, the prices of oil and natural gas reversed their upward trends. Natural gas discoveries, both on-shore and off-shore, have considerably iacreased the world s energy supply and oil discoveries, many with associated gas, contributed more feedstock potential for ammonia production. 

The economics of coal gasification are influenced by the availabiHty of oil and natural gas, but coal is expected to continue to play an ever-increasing role as a significant resource base for both energy and chemicals. 

Furnaces for Oil and Natural Gas Firing. Natural gas furnaces are relatively small in size because of the ease of mixing the fuel and the air, hence the relatively rapid combustion of gas. Oil also bums rapidly with a luminous flame. To prevent excessive metal wall temperatures resulting from high radiation rates, oil-fired furnaces are designed slightly larger in size than gas-fired units in order to reduce the heat absorption rates. 

In oil and natural gas fields and reservoirs, the boreholes are cased to stabilize the wells. Depending on the depth and the operating conditions, several pipes may be fitted inside each other in the area near the surface (telescope casing) (see Fig. 18-1). 

Human interaction with the global cycle is most evident in the movement of the element carbon. The burning of biomass, coal, oil, and natural gas to generate heat and electricity has released carbon to the atmosphere and oceans in the forms of CO2 and carbonate. Because of the relatively slow... 

A number of injection mouldings have been prepared from CAB with about 19% combined acetic acid and 44% combined butyric acid. Their principal end products have been for tabulator keys, automobile parts, toys and tool handles. In the United States CAB has been used for telephone housings. Extruded CAB piping has been extensively used in America for conveying water, oil and natural gas, while CAB sheet has been able to offer some competition to acrylic sheet for outdoor display signs. 

Pipeline Failure Characteristics and Analysis of Pipeline Failure Rates Gas oil and natural gas pipelines ... 

This article presents an overview of the causes and frequency of failures for submarine and cross-country pipelines handling oil and natural gas. It gives several tables and charts which include information on the type of pipeline, the cause of the failure, and the number of failures. Data from failures in the US and the North Sea are included. Failure rates based on the total length of piping are calculated. 

Failure and Inventory Reporting System Offshore Oil and Natural Gas 8,000 failure events and causes Inventory data on ASME coded devices Safety and pollution prevention devices on offshore structures, eg. subsurface safety valves 72. 

Performance of Pipework in the British Sector of the North Sea Offshore Oil and Natural Gas Failure rates based on 27 actual incidents from UK DOE reports Offshore oil. gas. and process fluid submarine pipelines within the UK Continental Shelf 109. 

The U.S. Uepartment of Energy (UOE) projects that the prices of oil and natural gas will rise modestly until the year 2020, and the price of coal and electricity will fall approximately 20 percent by then, which will help push energy consumption to 119.4 quadrillion Btus by 2020, more than double the level of consumption in 1967. 

Resource pessimists counter that this process cannot proceed forever because the eternal persistence of demand for any given commodity that is destroyed by use must inevitably lead to its depletion. I lowever, the eternal persistence assumption is not necessarily correct. The life of a solar system apparently is long but finite. Energy sources such as nuclear fusion and solar energy in time could replace more limited resources such as oil and natural gas. Already, oil, gas, nuclear power, and coal from better sources have displaced traditional sources of coal in, for example, Britain, Germany, Japan, and France. 

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