Number of applicants

One of the techniques capable of being used "on stream" is the novel INCOTEST technique, see figure 2, which measures wall thickness of piping and vessels through an insulation layer with a maximum thickness of 10 centimetres. This system is based on pulsed eddy currents, was first developed in the United States, and is now being commercialised and extensively validated for a number of applications. 

The Hemian-Kluk method has been developed further [153-155], and used in a number of applications [156-159]. Despite the formal accuracy of the approach, it has difficulties, especially if chaotic regions of phase space are present. It also needs many trajectories to converge, and the initial integration is time consuming for large systems. Despite these problems, the frozen Gaussian approximation is the basis of the spawning method that has been applied to... 

Controlled-potential coulometry also can be applied to the quantitative analysis of organic compounds, although the number of applications is significantly less than that for inorganic analytes. One example is the six-electron reduction of a nitro group, -NO2, to a primary amine, -NH2, at a mercury electrode. Solutions of picric acid, for instance, can be analyzed by reducing to triaminophenol. 

Important properties and a number of applications of several commercial adsorbents are summarized in Tables 2—4. 

For a large number of applications involving ceramic materials, electrical conduction behavior is dorninant. In certain oxides, borides (see Boron compounds), nitrides (qv), and carbides (qv), metallic or fast ionic conduction may occur, making these materials useful in thick-film pastes, in fuel cell apphcations (see Fuel cells), or as electrodes for use over a wide temperature range. Superconductivity is also found in special ceramic oxides, and these materials are undergoing intensive research. Other classes of ceramic materials may behave as semiconductors (qv). These materials are used in many specialized apphcations including resistance heating elements and in devices such as rectifiers, photocells, varistors, and thermistors. 

As the bielectrophile contains two atoms of the five-membered ring, reactions to be considered under this category require a 1,3-binucleophile (see Table 1). An appreciable number of applications have been reported in the literature and illustrative examples are described below. One should also consider reactions discussed in Section 4.03.2.2 above as extensions of this concept. 

Introduction Packed columns for gas-liquid contacting are used extensively for absorption, stripping, and distillation operations. Usually the columns are filled with a randomly oriented packing material, but for an increasing number of applications the packing is very care-... 

There are many uses of fluidized beds. A number of applications have become commercial successes others are in the pilot-plant stage, and others in bench-scale stage. Generally, the fluidized bed is used for gas-solids contac ting however, in some instances the presence of the gas or sohd is used only to provide a fluidized bed to accomplish the end result. Uses or special (maracteristics follow ... 

Clinoptilolite is microporous crystalline solid with well-defined structure, which have great potential for a number of applications in various fields, such as adsorption, separation, ion-exchange and catalysis. 

In a number of applications liquid pumparound sections are installed. Such sections are used in caustic scrubbers where only a small addition of... 

We have already discussed a number of applications of the SEM to materials characterization topographical (SE) imaging, Energy-Dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDS) and the use of backscattering measurements to determine the composition of binary alloy systems. We now shall briefly discuss applications that are, in part, spe-... 

In this section, a number of applications for NRA are presented. As this is not a review article, the following is only a sampling of the possible uses of this powerful technique. The reader interested in information on additional applications is directed to the proceedings of the Ion Beam Analysis Conferences and those from the International Conferences on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry, among other sources. 

An example of the first type is the emulsion stabiliser as exemplified by sodium oleyl sulphate, cetyl pyridinium chloride and poly(ethylene oxide) derivatives. For a number of applications it is desirable that the latex be thickened before use, in which case thickening agents such as water-soluble cellulose ethers or certain alginates or methacrylates may be employed. Antifoams such as silicone oils are occasionally required. 

The maximum service temperature is about 60°C lower than that of PTFE for use under equivalent conditions. Continuous service at 200°C is possible for a number of applications. The polymer melts at about 290°C. 

The important features of rigidity and transparency make the material competitive with polystyrene, cellulose acetate and poly(methyl methacrylate) for a number of applications. In general the copolymer is cheaper than poly(methyl methacrylate) and cellulose acetate, tougher than poly(methyl methacrylate) and polystyrene and superior in chemical and most physical properties to polystyrene and cellulose acetate. It does not have such a high transparency or such food weathering properties as poly(methyl methacrylate). As a result of these considerations the styrene-acrylonitrile copolymers have found applications for dials, knobs and covers for domestic appliances, electrical equipment and car equipment, for picnic ware and housewares, and a number of other industrial and domestic applications with requirements somewhat more stringent than can be met by polystyrene. 

Acetal resins find a number of applications in gears, where they come into competition with the nylons. Acetal gears are superior to those made from nylon in fatigue resistance, dimensional stability and stiffness, whereas nylon gears in conditions of average humidity have greater resistance to impact fatigue and abrasion. 

Although somewhat more expensive than the general purpose thermoplastics, polycarbonates have established themselves in a number of applications. The desirable features of the polymer may be listed as follows ... 

PPO forms one of a group of rigid, heat-resistant, more-or-less selfextinguishing polymers with a good electrical and chemical resistance, low water absorption and very good dimensional stability. This has led to a number of applications in television such as tuner strips, microwave insulation components and transformer housings. The excellent hydrolytic stability has also led to applications in water distribution and water treatment applications such as in pumps, water meters, sprinkler systems and hot water tanks. It is also used in valves of drink vending machines. 

The dough moulding compounds were originally developed in an attempt to combine the mechanical properties of polyester-glass laminates with the speed of cure of conventional moulding powder. In spite of their somewhat high cost they have now established themselves in a number of applications where a mechanieally strong electrical insulant is required. 

Although, even today, vacancy chromatography is rarely used in analytical laboratories generally, there are a number of applications where it appears it might be very useful. The technique, that was suggested by Zhukhovitski for quality control is a particularly interesting application. Consider a pharmaceutical product that contains... 

APAOs has limited their utility in a number of applications. The broad MWD produces poor machining and spraying, and the low cohesive strength causes bond failures at temperatures well below the softening point when minimal stress is applied. To address these deficiencies, metallocene-polymerized materials have been developed [17,18]. These materials have much narrower MWDs than Ziegler-Natta polymerized materials and a more uniform comonomer distribution (see Table 3). Materials available commercially to date are better suited to compete with conventional EVA and EnBA polymers, against which their potential benefits have yet to be realized in practice. 

Low Molecular Weight Flocculants - Contrary to the trend to increase molecular weight, which has resulted in the commercial availability of ultra high molecular weight (HMW) flocculants, there are a number of applications where low molecular weight (LMW) flocculants are gaining considerable credibility. 

The technology that competes with ion exchange in wastewater application is reverse osmosis (RO), therefor it is appropriate to make some comparisons. Direct cost comparisons are not straightforward, and requires comparison of some of the hidden cost parameters. Since there appear to be few detailed comparisons in the open literature, there exists the general impression that RO is more economical than ion exchange. Whereas this may be true in a number of applications, as a general rule this is not the case. 

It was noted early by Smid and his coworkers that open-chained polyethylene glycol type compounds bind alkali metals much as the crowns do, but with considerably lower binding constants. This suggested that such materials could be substituted for crown ethers in phase transfer catalytic reactions where a larger amount of the more economical material could effect the transformation just as effectively as more expensive cyclic ethers. Knbchel and coworkers demonstrated the application of open-chained crown ether equivalents in 1975 . Recently, a number of applications have been published in which simple polyethylene glycols are substituted for crowns . These include nucleophilic substitution reactions, as well as solubilization of arenediazonium cations . Glymes have also been bound into polymer backbones for use as catalysts " " . 

The application of CFD modeling is a very promising tool, and its use can be very helpful in a large number of applications but also requires some experience of the CFD engineer to produce accurate results. 

A restricted number of applicable fluonne markers may also be viewed as a Imutabon The tnfluoroacetyl moiety has been the most commonly used group, used m sbidies of ammo acids, steroids, and carbohydrates Enhanced F NMR detection should be possible with specifically designed agents of opumal biological and spectral properbes... 

Numerous application examples are related to gel filtration (e.g., see Hagel, 1989 Hagel and Janson, 1992 Pharmacia, 1991). A selected number of applications are discussed with respect to their goals and to types of methods and SEC media attributes, which impact the selection and or construction of a suitable SEC column. Specific examples of these various applications types are given later under Sections II,C and III. The optimization of running conditions to achieve the desired results are discussed in Section VI. 

The synthetic method used to accomplish this is an indirect one known as hydroboration-oxidation. It was developed by Professor Herbert C. Brown and his coworkers at Purdue University in the 1950s as part of a broad progran designed to apply boron-containing reagents to organic chemical synthesis. The number of applications is so large (hydroboration-oxidation is just one of them) and the work so novel that Brown was a corecipient of the 1979 Nobel Prize in chemistry. 

Volume 79 of Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry commences with an overview of Tellurium-Nitrogen-Containing Heterocycles by I. D. Sadekov and V. I. Minkin of Rostov State University, Russia, andrepresents an update of the review published by the same authors in Volume 58 of Advances, eight years ago. The field has expanded markedly in the recent past, and the compounds show promise in an increasing number of applications, particularly in the material science field. 

From the pioneering studies of Ito et al. [117], CCC has been mainly used for the separation and purification of natural products, where it has found a large number of applications [114, 116, 118, 119]. Moreover, the potential of this technique for preparative purposes can be also applied to chiral separations. The resolution of enantiomers can be simply envisaged by addition of a chiral selector to the stationary liquid phase. The mixture of enantiomers would come into contact with this liquid CSP, and enantiodiscrimination might be achieved. However, as yet few examples have been described in the literature. 

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