Low-level lead exposure

Children s Susceptibility. Many of the known health effects that have been associated with low level lead exposure have been detected in children who experienced lead exposures both in utero and postnatally. Considerable uncertainty remains about the relative contribution of in utero and postnatal exposures to the development of health outcomes that are expressed later in childhood. This information is important for distinguishing those health outcomes that might be mitigated during the post-natal period from those that must be mitigated by limiting in utero exposure. Considerable uncertainty also remains... 

The interaction between exposure intensity and duration of exposure in the development of neurobehavioral deficits is not understood, in part because of a lack of biomarkers of long-term lead exposure. The strongest evidence for health effects of low level lead exposures on neurodevelopmental deficits is based on relationships between measured health outcomes and PbB concentrations. Although these studies suggest that a significant amount of the variability in the health outcomes (e.g., neurobehavioral deficits) can be attributed to variability in PbB concentrations, a substantial amount of variability in the outcomes usually cannot be assigned to PbB, even after many known potential confounders have been considered (i.e., Needleman and Gatsonis 1990 Pocock et al. 1994 Schwartz 1994 Winneke 1996). 

Bellinger DC, Leviton A, Needleman HL, et al. 1986a. Low-level lead exposure and infant development in the first year. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 8 151-161. 

Bellinger DC, Leviton A, Rabinowitz M, et al. 1986b. Correlates of low-level lead exposure in urban children at two years of age. Pediatrics 77 826-833. 

Bellinger DC, Sloman J, Leviton A, et al. 1987b. Low level lead exposure and child development Assessment at age 5 of a cohort followed from birth. In Lindberg SE, Hutchinson TC, eds. International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment. New Orleans, LA, September, Vol. 1. Edinburgh, UK CEP Consultants, Ltd., 49-53. 

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Bellinger DC, Stiles KM, Needleman HL. 1992. Low-level lead exposure, intelligence and academic achievement A long-term follow-up study. Pediatrics 90 855-861. 

Bielarczyk H, Tomsig JL, Suszkiw JB. 1994. Perinatal low-level lead exposure and the hippocampal cholinergic system selective reduction of muscarinic receptor and cholineacetyltransferase in the rat septum. Brain Res 643 211-217. 

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Cory-Slechta DA, O Mara DJ, Brockel BJ. 1998. Nucleus accumbens dopaminergic mediation of fixed interval schedule-controlled behavior and its modulation by low-level lead exposure. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 286 794-805. 

Cory-Slechta DA, Widzowski DV. 1991. Low level lead exposure increases sensitivity to the stimulus properties of dopamine D1 and D2 agonists. Brain Res 553 65-74. 

Ehle A. 1986. Lead neuropathy and electrophysiological studies in low level lead exposure A critical review. Neurotoxicity 7 203-216. 

Emory E, Patillo R, Archibold E, et al. 1999. Neuro-behavioral effects of low level lead exposure in human newborns. American Journal of Obstretrics and Gynecology, in press. 

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Fox DA, Rubinstein SD. 1989. Age-related changes in retinal sensitivity, rhodopsin content and rod outer segment length in hooded rats following low-level lead exposure during development. Exp Eye Res 48 237-249. 

Gatsonis CA, Needleman HL. 1992. Recent epidemiologic studies of low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children A meta-analytic review. In Needleman HL, ed. Human lead exposure. Boca Raton, FL CRC Press, 243-255. 

Grant LD, Davis JM. 1987. Effect of low-level lead exposure on paediatric neurobehavioral and physical development Current findings and future directions. In Smith M, Grant LD, Sors A, eds. Lead exposure and child development An international assessment. Lancaster, UK Kluwer Academic Publishers. 

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Lyngbye T, Hansen ON, Trillingsgaard A, et al. 1990a. Learning disabilities in children Significance of low-level lead-exposure and confounding factors. Acta Paediatr Scan 79 352-360. 

Massaro EJ, Massaro TF. 1987. Low level lead exposure during neonatal development perturbs cognitive function. Am Coll Toxicol 6 441-449. 

Michaels D, Zoloth SR, Stem FB. 1991. Does low-level lead exposure increase risk of death A mortality study of newspaper printers. Int J Epidemiol 20 978-983. 

Moorhouse SR, Carden S, Drewitt PN, et al. 1988. The effect of chronic low level lead exposure on blood-brain barrier function in the developing rat. Biochem Pharmacol 37 4539-4547. 

Mushak P, Davis JM, Crocetti AF, et al. 1989. Prenatal and postnatal effects of low-level lead exposure Integrated summary of a report to the U.S. Congress on childhood lead poisoning. Environ Res 50 11-36. 

NeedlemanHL. 1987a. Low-level lead exposure in the fetus and young child. Neurotoxicology 8 389-393. 

Paglia DE, Valentine WN, Dahigren JG. 1975. Effects of low-level lead exposure on pyrimidine 5 -nucleotidase and other erythrocyte enzymes Possible role of pyrimidine 5 -nucleotidase in the pathogenesis of lead-induced anemia. J Clin Invest 56 1164-1169. 

Pokora MJ, Richfield EK, Cory-Slechta DA. 1996. Preferential vulnerability of nucleus accumbens dopamine binding sites to low-level lead exposure time course of effects and interactions with chronic dopamine agonist treatments. JNeurochem 67 1540-1550. 

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