Life cycle assessment external

Passenger car (1-5 persons plus luggage) Life-cycle assessment externality monetising exercise Average USA, 2000 Best Europe, 2000 Hr from natural gas Hr from wind surplus Otto engine common-rail Diesel PEMFC/elec. motor PEMFC/elec. motor Toyota Camry VWLupoSL DaimlerChrysler f-cell DaimlerChrysler f-cell L/n/t Ref. ... 

The EPS system was initially developed to be used within the product development process as a tool to help assess the environmental performance of products. The system is based on LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology and uses inventory data (kg of substance A), characterization factors (impact/kg of substance X) and weighting factors (cost/impacts) to calculate the external costs or values of a product. By multiplying the characterization factor with the weighting factor, an impact index is obtained (cost/kg of substance X) which describe the cost/values related to the emission per use of a kg of a certain substance. 

Schleisner, L., Life cycle assessment of a wind farm and related externalities, Renewable Energy, 20, 279-288, 2000. 

The quantitative assessment of environmental impacts can be made using life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, which accounts for both inputs and emissions. LCA can be used to identify the major environmental impact categories and the sources of those impacts within a chemical processing plant. LCA can also be used to identify the major contributions to environmental impact within a product s life cycle. Impact scores derived from LCA can be used along with economic assessment scores and social indicators to provide indicators of overall sustainability of processes and products. Economic assessments are often limited through failure to account for all internal costs and especially the external costs associated with waste. 

LCC is also used as a tool for triple-bottom-1 ine assessment of the sustainable development where win-win situations and trade-offs are identified by considering LCC in conjunction with life cycle assessment (LCA) and its social impact such as the externalities as shown in Fig. 4. 

Many studies also have been conducted on environmental costing in an organization or a supply chain (Roy et al. 2009). As Nikolopoulou and lerapetritou (2012) have mentioned, there are many systematic methods which can be used as environmental performance indicators of product and process such as product life cycle assessment (LCA) and minimal environmental impact. Letmathe and Boost (2000) proposed cause and effect analysis to assign environmental cost. Be Beer and Friend (2006) considered 5 types of costs including internal and external costs and also regarded environmental revenues. 

Sorensen, B. (1996a). Life-cycle approach to assessing environmental and social externality costs. In "Comparing Energy Technologies", Ch. 5, pp. 297-331. International Energy Agency, lEA/OECD, Paris. 

It is expected to become in the near future a standard addition to LCA, in order to evaluate the economic implications of a product s life cycle. Hunkeler and Rebitzer [85] have indicated that LCC is an assessment of all costs associated with the life cycle of a product that are directly covered by any one or more of the actors in the product life cycle (supplier, producer, user/consumer, end-of-life actor), with complementary inclusion of externalities that are anticipated to be internalized in the decision-relevant future. For example, a product manufacturer should include in an LCC study the costs incurred by the user of his product. 

THA helps in establishing guidelines for the sensitivity assessment of munitions. The purpose of an IM program is to increase the survivability of ships and aircraft by making munitions less sensitive to unplanned stimuli. MIL-STD-2105 provides a series of tests to assess the reaction of energetic materials to external stimuli representative of credible exposures in the life cycle of a weapon and requires the use of a THA in developing test plans. 

The review of literature on the international diffusion reveals that although some factors have been identified determining the adoption lag between countries, there is no theoretical concept of the mechanisms of the international diffusion of nationally induced innovations. International adoption models have rarely been combined with models of local or global externalities described in section 2.3. Furthermore, in these studies the link between early adoption and the competitive advantage of companies is only stressed by Tilton (1971). This link is especially the main contribution of the international product life cycle proposed by Vernon (1966). To conclude this review, I now turn to the historical assessment of the home market advantage of multinational firms. 

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