Internal costs

The use and effective costs of various energy alternatives are shown in Table 2. Use or internal costs include production, transportation, and distribution. Effective costs take into account the use costs estimated external costs, which include costs associated with damage to the environment caused by utili2ation of various fossil fuels and fuel utili2ation efficiencies, ie, the efficiency of converting fuels into mechanical, electrical, or thermal energy. The effective costs are expressed as /GJ of fossil fuel equivalent (15). The overall equation for the effective cost is... 

For hquid and/or sohd handling, A. V. Bridgwater and F. D. G. Bossom (Proceedings of the 6th International Cost Engineenng Con-ferenee, Mexico, October, 1980) suggested the following equations ... 

This requirement clearly defines the purpose of a quality system, that of ensuring that products conform to specified requirements. One of the principal differences between ISO 9000 and ISO/TS 16949 is the emphasis placed on internal efficiency and effectiveness. Implementing the requirements of ISO/TS 16949 will cause the waste, errors, and internal costs to be minimized. Unlike ISO 9001, ISO/TS 16949 requires the system to enable the organization to implement its quality policy and achieve its quality objectives, which after all is its purpose. This fundamental shift in concept is also behind the changes being made to ISO 9000 in the year 2000 edition. 

Anon. (2004) Process Engineering (Mar) 85. UK and international cost indices. 

In general, economic inefficiency in resource allocation would be the result of a divergence between private benefits or costs and social benefits or costs, i.e. the result of externalities. Private costs (or internal costs) are directly taken by the buyer. Private costs for a transport user would, for example, include expenses for wear and tear, energy cost of vehicle use, transport fares, taxes and charges, as well as welfare effects such as own time costs. 

Distribution locations are included in the company-internal value chain network, if distribution volumes and values are under the control and in the books of the company independent if the warehousing and transportation is outsourced to 3PL distribution companies or not. Therefore, a company value chain network is enclosed with a central control of all volume and value information for the respective network and clear interfaces to customers and suppliers out of the network. While the internal value chain network is focused on material flows evaluated with respective internal costs, dedicated interfaces to multiple suppliers and multiple customers are characterized by material flows, financial flows and mutual instead of one-directional exchange of information as proposed for supply chains by several authors. 

Contract research organisations are likely to be more efficient, and on occasion can be faster than the company. A balance has to be struck between the outsourcing costs, internal costs (which are often underestimated) and the management requirements and skill sets of the CRO and internal staff. 

Costs for solvents and waste management (e.g., internal costs/salaries for collecting the waste) ... 

McMillan BG, Humphreys KK (1990) Sources of International Cost Data. Transactions of the American Association of Cost Engineers, pp K.6.1-K.6.9... 

Managing cost centers Internal cost allocation/ charging... 

Some of those procedures are intended only to protect the contractor s interests, control internal costs, and gather data for internal use. Most of them would not be required for small projects. 

Internal Eco-efficiency Internal costs to the company Revenue opportunities Access to capital and insurance Shareholder value... 

The cost of a clinical trial arises from both internal and external costs. Internal costs are those incurred within the sponsor s organization (personnel, office supplies, etc.) external costs are those incurred on such items as investigators, laboratories, travel and so on. Quantification of the internal costs, especially those associated with personnel, has proved a persistent challenge, as discussed below. The costs of a typical contract research organization (CRO) may be viewed as shifting costs from internal to external. 

In addition, we have addressed the issue of internal costs and the use of CROs, particularly with respect to (a) obtaining and comparing CRO bids ... 

In order that the true internal costs of a study can be calculated, it is necessary that a sponsor completes a similar exercise, using its own internal fully overheaded costs for each of the cost center personnel that are used. When sponsors estimates of internal costs are substantially less than those offered by CROs, it is frequently the case that understanding of the sponsors fully overheaded costs has been inadequate. This was borne out in a survey of 27 pharmaceutical companies (King, 1997), 41% of whom reported that they did calculate internal costs, 33% reported that they did not and, interestingly, 26% did not know ... 

Various methods can be used for the calculation of internal costs, two of which have been published widely the Hoechst Marion Roussel Model (Hill and Hubbard, 1996) and the MSD BARDS Model (Papazian and Wise, 1995). A reliable and reproducible method must include the calculation of the cost of a full-time equivalent (Fib) employee at... 

Prepare yourself for the responses, for example construct a master spreadsheet with (internal) costs also inserted in for ease of comparison. 

The importance of the sponsor having already calculated its internal costs for executing the project cannot be overemphasized in this situation. In this example, despite the relative uniformity of daily rate fees across the three CROs, there are significant variations between the line item (or task) bids, as well as the bottom-line or total bids. Only with the sponsor s own estimate for comparison can sensible and informed revisions by the CRO be requested and, most importantly, it allows assessment of which of the CROs has provided the most realistic bid. Beware of the practice of simply choosing the lowest or average bid (i.e. on an empirical basis) it may well be that the highest bid is the only one that includes everything needed to successfully complete the study. 

The quantitative assessment of environmental impacts can be made using life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, which accounts for both inputs and emissions. LCA can be used to identify the major environmental impact categories and the sources of those impacts within a chemical processing plant. LCA can also be used to identify the major contributions to environmental impact within a product s life cycle. Impact scores derived from LCA can be used along with economic assessment scores and social indicators to provide indicators of overall sustainability of processes and products. Economic assessments are often limited through failure to account for all internal costs and especially the external costs associated with waste. 

Internal costs, also called private costs, which are those appearing in company s accounts, as well as those incurred by consumers or other stakeholders. These costs have a dear market value. In this group we find conventional costs (materials, fuels, labor, equipment, etc.) and potentially hidden and less tangible costs, which are usually assigned to overheads in company s accounts (permits, post-closure care, liability costs, etc.). 

Describe the economic parameters of using different disinfectants and compare international cost estimates with those for your city/conntry. 

A vapor-distributing support (Fig. 3.10) is a flat perforated plate containing perforated vapor risers. Liquid descends through the floor perforations, while vapor rises through the riser perforations. The bottom portion of the vapor risers is unperforated, so that vapor is injected above the liquid pool on the plate. Sumps are optional and recommended (289) where liquid inventory is to be reduced. The vapor-distributing support combines two internals (a vapor distributor and a support plate) into one. Compared to a vapor distributor, this saves both vertical space and internals costs. On the other hand, obstruction of perforations by pieces of packing and possible liquid overflow into risers may make its vapor distribution quality somewhat lower. 

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