Insect resistance

Insect juvenile hormone Insect repellents Insect resistance Insects... 

Resistance to Microorganisms and Insects. Resistance of triacetate to microorganisms, based on soil-burial tests, is high, approaching that of polyester, acryUc, and nylon fibers. Sod-burial test results on acetate, triacetate, and cotton are shown in Figure 8. Neither acetate nor triacetate fiber is readdy attacked by moths or carpet beedes. 

Unfortunately, there is a significant disadvantage resulting from appHcation of insect-resist agents from dyebaths it is impossible to ensure 100% exhaustion (transfer of pesticide from dyebath to fiber) and as a result, there is inevitably some environmental contamination. The extent of concern with this release of insect-resist agent depends on the spectmm of activity of the agent. If it is a broad-spectmm insecticide, especially one with reasonable persistence and lipophilic character, it is Hable to be reasonably toxic to aquatic insects and invertebrates, especially in certain environmental locations where... 

I. RusseU, Combined Insect Resist and Rot-resist Treatmentsfor Wool Insulation, CSIRO Division of Wool Technology Report G69, May 1992. 

Provides a coordinated crop protection industry response to the development of resistance in insect and mite pests. During the last decade, IRAC has formed several international working gi oups to provide practical solutions to mite and insect resistance problems within major crops and pesticide groups. 

Painter, R. H. Insect Resistance in Crops The University Press of Kansas Lawrence, KS, 1951. 

The development of resistant strains of pest species of insects has been intensively studied for sound economic reasons, and there are many good examples. For further information, see Brown (1971), Georghiou and Saito (1983), McCaffery (1998), and Oppenoorth and Welling (1976). Some examples of mechanisms of insect resistance are given in Table 4.3. 

Scott, J.G., Liu, N.A., and Wen, Z. (1998). Insect cytochromes P450 diversity, insect resistance and tolerance to plant toxins. In D.R. Livingstone and J.J. Stegeman (Eds.) Forms and Function of Cytochrome P450, 147-156. 

DOWN R E, FORD L, BEDFORD S J, GATEHOUSE L N, NEWELL C, GATHOUSE J A, GATEHOUSE A M (2001) Influence of plant development and environment on transgene expression in potato and consequences for insect resistance. Transgenic Res. 10(3) 223-260. 

The development of resistant strains of an insect to a given insecticide is not new. Melander (7) in 1914 pointed out that the San Jose scale in Washington had developed a resistance to lime-sulfur sprays. Recently Babers (1) of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine brought together an excellent evaluation and summary of the literature dealing with the development of insect resistance to insecticides he lists 111 references to work on this phenomenon. 

The world had changed radically in the quarter century since Muller had begun his search for an effective synthetic insecticide. DDT and its chemical derivatives had been the most widely used insecticides for more than 20 years. Because insect resistance was weakening DDT s effectiveness, its use was beginning to decline. Since DDT-associated molecules have a half-life as long as 50 years, however, almost one billion pounds of DDT remained in the environment. 

These synthetic pyrethroids mimic natural counterparts, of which the most important is pyrethrin 1 (10.265). Unfortunately, the natural products lack the photochemical and hydrolytic stability necessary for use as wool insect-resist agents. The synthetic products have the required stability, yet retain the low mammalian toxicity and low environmental retention of the natural products. Permethrin, however, is toxic to aquatic life and is therefore subject to increasingly severe discharge limits. There is some evidence that permethrin is less effective against larvae of a certain beetle. This can be compensated for by using a combination of permethrin with the hexahydropyrimidine derivative 10.264. Some possible alternative pyrethroids have been mentioned [517] as development products (10.266-10.269). 

Other chemicals evaluated but not yet adopted commercially include organophosphorus compounds, triphenyltin compounds, quaternary ammonium salts, imidazoles, benzimidazoles, carbamates and the precocene anti-juvenile hormones [517]. Although none of the above has found use as an insect-resist agent, several have been used as antimicrobial agents for textiles. 

A development reported recently [519] involves reduction of the cystine disulphide bonds in wool with either thioglycolic acid or tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride to form thiol groups, followed by crosslinking with bifunctional reactive dyes. This gave improved insect resistance but had adverse effects on physical properties such as strength, shrinkage and stiffness, thus limiting the potential of the process for commercial use. 

Bell, H. A., Down, R.E., Fitches, E.C., Edwards, J.P. and Gatehouse, A.M.R. (2003). Impact of genetically modified potato expressing plant derived insect resistance genes on the predatory bug, Podisus maculiventris (Heteroptera Pentatomidae). Biocontrol Science and Technology 13 729-741. 

Factual knowledge is the knowledge of what actually happens (quantitative data or empirical, observed data). Examples gene flow species by species or region by region facts about insect resistance in agriculture. 

Insects have acquired resistance to organochlorine compounds, such as DDT and BHC, developed as agricultural and hygienic insecticides after World War II. This insect resistance was also acquired to subsequent organophosphorus compounds and carbamate insecticides. Photostable pyrethroids have been developed for outdoor use because pyrethroids were found to be effective against these resistant pests. As a matter of course, these pyrethroids are also effective against sanitary pests however, problems associated with safety and chemical residues indoors must be resolved. 

Resistance to insecticides has drawn global attention since the Korean War in 1950 when the mass use of organic synthetic insecticides, such as DDT and BHC, against agricultural pests and sanitary pests became common. Organophosphorus compounds and carbamates were used thereafter, but invited problems of safety concerns and insect resistance. Synthetic pyrethroids were watched with keen interest as alternatives and have become used widely not only for sanitary pests but also agricultural pests. The development of resistance to synthetic pyrethroids is also not a rare phenomenon and has spread all over the world. 

Sanchis V, Denis Bourguet D (2009) Bacillus thuringiensis applications in agriculture and insect resistance management. A review. In Lichtfouse E, Navarrete M, Debaeke P, Souchere V, Alberola C (eds) Sustainable agriculture. Springer, pp 243-255. DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-2666-8 16... 

Some products and packages are more susceptible to insect infestation than others. These products can serve as insect reservoirs, leading to the infestation of other products (Highland, 1984). For example, dry pet foods packed in multiwall paper bags are generally not very insect resistant because they lack adequate seals and closures, whereas bird seed packages often contain ventilation holes that can allow insect entry. 

McGaughey, W.H. 1985b. Insect resistance to the biological insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis. Science 229, 193-195. 

Mullen, M.A. 1994. Rapid determination of the effectiveness of insect resistant packaging. J. Stored... 

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