Infants immune system

Secondary immunodeficiencies (9) are much more common than primary ones and frequently occur as a result of immaturity of the immune system in premature infants, immunosuppressive therapy, or surgery and trauma. Illnesses, particularly when prolonged and serious, have been associated with secondary immunodeficiencies, some of which may be reversible. Acquked immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) (10—12) may be considered a secondary immunodeficiency disease caused by the human immunodeficiency vimses HIV-1 or HIV-2. Hitherto unknown, the disease began to spread in the United States during the latter part of the 1970s. The agent responsible for this infection has been isolated and identified as a retrovims. 

No more than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month, (For water systems that collect fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliform-positive). Every sample that has total coliforms must be analyzed for fecal coliforms. There may not be any fecal coliforms or E. coli. Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be contaminated with human or animal wastes. Disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in these wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. These pathogens may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely compromised immune systems. 

In recognition of the increased vulnerability of the developing organism, both the U.S. EPA Food Quality Protection Act [77] and the U.S. EPA Safe Drinking Water Act [78] mandate that infants and children warrant special consideration in the risk assessment process. Immune system ontogeny and the sensitivity of the developing immune system to xenobiotics are discussed in detail in chapter 20 of this volume. 

Human milk is a s)mergistic package of essential nutrients and bioactive components. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that consumption is associated with health benefits for many immune-related conditions (Table 2.1). Breast milk contains the nutrients necessary to support the development of the infant s immune system as well as other components that defend against infection. This includes various antimicrobial substances, factors that promote immime development, constituents that promote tolerance and the priming of the infant immime system, as well as anti-inflammatory components. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the evidence for the immune benefits of human milk. 

The B-cells account for less than 20% of all lymphocytes in breast milk (reviewed by Field, 2005). IgA, IgG, and IgM are all present in human breast milk (Koenig et ah, 2005). Little is known about the potential role of milk B-cells on immune development in the infant but one might h)q)othesize that these cells could influence the infant s immune system. 

Hanson, L. A., Korotkova, M., and Telemo, E. (2003b). Breast-feeding, infant formulas, and the immune system. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 90, 59-63. 

Chagas disease in humans can be divided in two main phases the acute phase and the chronic phase. The acute phase may have no symptoms or have very mild symptoms. When present, the symptoms can include diarrhea, vomiting, headache, fever, edema, rashes, swollen lymph glands, enlarged liver or spleen, and myocarditis and/or meningoencephalitis. This phase is characterized by the presence of the protozoa in the patient s blood and can be severe and /or fatal in infants, children, and in people with weakened immune systems. In this phase, morbidity and clinical symptoms are directly associated with the parasitemia level. Chagas disease manifestations in the acute form are very common when T. cruzi is acquired by via the oral route. 

Antiviral Efficacy and Clinical Use. Ribavirin (Vira-zole) is active against several RNA and DNA viruses, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).106 Clinically, this drug is used to treat severe RSV pneumonia in infants and young children,106 and RSV in certain adult populations, including the elderly, people with cardiopulmonary problems, and people with a compromised immune system.29 Ribavirin may also be useful as a secondary agent in the treatment of influenza A and B in young adults. The combination of ribavirin and interferons (see section on Interferons, later) is often the treatment of choice in chronic hepatitis C infection.30 72... 

Let s first look at the benefits breast milk offers your baby. Then we ll examine the contamination issue. Breast milk is not just food. It is also medicine. It swarms with antibodies and white blood cells drawn from your own body. By drinking it, your infant comes to share your immune system. And benefits mightily from it. Breastfed infants have lower rates of hospitalization and death. They develop fewer respiratory infections,... 

Toxicity Zinc and its compounds are relatively nontoxic, but very large doses can produce acute gastroenteritis characterized by nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for zinc is 15 mg/day for men, 12 mg/day for women, 10 mg/day for children, and 5 mg/day for infants. Not enough zinc in the diet can result in a loss of appetite, a decreased sense of taste and smell, skin sores and slow wound healing, or a damaged immune system. 

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