From fueled vehicles

For these reasons, CEC and DOE concluded that the only cost-effective method of getting alcohol fueled vehicles would be from original equipment manufacturers (OEM). Vehicles produced on the assembly line would have lower unit costs. The OEM could design and ensure the success and durabihty of the emission control equipment. 

In the late 1980s attempts were made in California to shift fuel use to methanol in order to capture the air quaHty benefits of the reduced photochemical reactivity of the emissions from methanol-fueled vehicles. Proposed legislation would mandate that some fraction of the sales of each vehicle manufacturer be capable of using methanol, and that fuel suppHers ensure that methanol was used in these vehicles. The legislation became a study of the California Advisory Board on Air QuaHty and Fuels. The report of the study recommended a broader approach to fuel quaHty and fuel choice that would define environmental objectives and allow the marketplace to determine which vehicle and fuel technologies were adequate to meet environmental objectives at lowest cost and maximum value to consumers. The report directed the California ARB to develop a regulatory approach that would preserve environmental objectives by using emissions standards that reflected the best potential of the cleanest fuels. 

In extremely cold environments, engines can quickly become difficult, sometimes nearly impossible, to start. If ordinary gasoline- or diesel-oil-fired heaters are used, the coolant circulation pump, air fan, etc, must be powered from the vehicle s batteries, thus curtailing the time the system can be used, especially at very low temperatures when it is needed the most. By adding PbTe thermoelectrics to such heater systems, about 2% of their thermal output can be turned into electricity to mn the heater s electronics, fuel pump, combustion fan, and coolant circulation pump, with stiH sufficient power left over to keep the vehicle s battery fliUy charged. The market for such units is in the hundreds of thousands if manufacturing costs can be reduced. 

K. H. Heilman, G. K. Piotrowski, and R. M. Schaefer, Start Catalyst Systems Employing Heated Catalyst Technology for Control of Emissions from Methanol-Fueled Vehicles, SAE 93082, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1993. 

The behavior of these pollution roses is intuitively plausible, because considerable hydrocarbon emissions come from motor vehicles which are operated in both winter and summer and travel throughout the urban area. On the other hand, sulfur dioxide is released largely from the burning of coal and fuel oil. Space heating emissions are high in winter and low in summer. The SO2 emissions in summer are probably due to only a few point sources, such as power plants, and result in low average concentrations from each direction as well as large directional variability. 

Effective with the 1982 model year, particulate matter from diesel vehicles was regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the first time, at a level of 0.37 gm km . Diesel vehicles were allowed to meet an NO level of 0.93 gm km under an Environmental Protection Agency waiver. These standards were met by a combination of control systems, primarily exhaust gas recirculation and improvements in the combustion process. For the 1985 model year, the standards decreased to 0.12 gm of particulate matter per kilometer and 0.62 gm of NO per kilometer. This required the use of much more extensive control systems (1). The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (2) have kept the emission standards at the 1985 model level with one exception diesel-fueled heavy trucks shall be required to meet an NO standard of 4.0 gm per brake horsepower hour. 

Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery (OR ) regulations were fust proposed m 1987 but were met with a litany of technical and safety issues that delayed the requirement. The 1990 CAA amendments required the implementation of ORVR and the EPA regulation requires passenger cars to first have the systems starting in 1998. The ORVR test will be performed in a SHED and will require that not more than 0.2 grams of hydrocarbon vapor per gallon of dispensed fuel be released from the vehicle. 

Compared with other alternative motor fuel options (reformulated gasoline, compressed or liquefied natural gas, ethanol from corn or coal, methanol and electricity), propane has the lowest greenhouse gas emissions except for natural gas. According to a 1998 study by the Institute of Transportation Studies, greenhouse emissions from propane vehicles arc 21.8 percent less than from gasoline or diesel. 

The generation of arr pollutants, including VOC s, from automotive vehicles was identified to come from two principal sources vehicle exhaust emissions, and fuel system evaporative emissions [4], Evaporative emissions are defined as the automotive fuel vapors generated and released from the vehicle s fuel system due to the interactions of the specific fuel in use, the fuel system characteristics, and environmental factors. The sources of the evaporative emissions are discussed below and, as presented m the remainder of this chapter, control of these evaporative emissions are the focus of the application of activated carbon technology in automotive systems. 

Of the 300 million cars in the United States, only a few thousand were highway capable electric vehicles and some of these were conversions. Most dealerships do not put much effort in marketing alternative fuel vehicles because of the limited demand. Battery electric cars suffered from their limited range and lack of charging stations. They were only marketed in a few states with very limited advertising. Even with this... 

Methanol also seems to biodegrade quickly when spilled and it dissolves and dilutes rapidly in water. It has been recommended as an alternative fuel by the EPA and the DOE, partly because of reduced urban air pollutant emissions compared to gasoline. Most methanol-fueled vehicles use a blend of 85% methanol and 15% gasoline called M85. Building a methanol infrastructure would not be as difficult as converting to hydrogen. While methanol can be produced from natural gas, it can also be distilled from coal or even biomass. In the 1980s, methanol was popular for a brief time as an internal-combustion fuel and President Bush even discussed this in a 1989 speech. 

In standard internal combustion engine drive trains, about 60% of the added value results from the vehicle industry. This share may be reduced to only 10% for fuel-cell drive trains if the outsourcing potential is fully exploited. This shift is because the components of the fuel-cell propulsion system are not suited to current production structures in the automobile industry. Therefore, it can initially be assumed that they will be manufactured by other sectors. However, if there is a breakthrough of fuel cells, it is possible that the automobile industry will start to manufacture many of the components that are assigned to other sectors in Figure 13.13. 

The higher prices of cars, which is balanced by subsidies, has two impacts in ASTRA first, car manufacturers increase their revenues and output, compared with BAU, and second, a few other sectors that manufacture significant shares of the fuel cell also benefit. HyWays estimates that about one third of a car s price is related to the drive train. For hydrogen-fuel-cell cars, out of this one third about 30% is assumed to be provided by the chemical sector and 40% by the electronics sector in ASTRA. The remaining 30% is still manufactured by the vehicle sector. Hence, the according shares of demand for H2 fuel-cell vehicles are shifted from the vehicles sector, which before produced 100% of the drive train, to the chemicals and electronics sectors, respectively. This affects the sectoral final demand and the input-output table calculations in ASTRA. 

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