From Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemic acid (obtained from chrysanthemum flowers)... 

Hu L, Zhongliang CH. Sesquiterpenoid alcohols from Chrysanthemum morifolium. Phytochemistry 1997 44 1287-1290. 

Rivera SB, Swedlund BD, King GJ et al (2001) Chrysanthemyl diphosphate synthase isolation of the gene and characterization of the recombinant non-head-to-tail monoterpene synthase from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98 4373 -378... 

Pyrethroids are a class of synthetic insecticides designed and optimized based on the structure of the pyrethrins found in natural pyrethrum extracted from chrysanthemum flowers [1, 2], Pyrethroids are widely used to control insect pests in agriculture and public health because of their relative safety for humans and high insecticidal potency [3]. 

Pyrethroids From Chrysanthemum to Modern Industrial Insecticide... 

In 1959-61, a Czech group [8,9] reported the isolation of a new sesquiterpene lactone from Chrysanthemum (Tanacetum) parthenium as part of a study of the sesquiterpene lactones of the Compositae family. They named it parthenolide. The initial structure for parthenolide was later revised [10,11] and the accepted structure for parthenolide today is represented by structure (1). Parthenolide is a germacranolide-type sesquiterpene lactone. The crystal structure for parthenolide has also been reported [12]. Extractions of C. (T.) parthenium grown in Mexico, known locally as santamaria, did not yield parthenolide [13], but a closely related compound was isolated and named santamarine (3). This suggests that regional variations in the chemical constituents may occur. 

A newer class of insecticides is the pyrethroids. These are synthetic derivatives of pyrethrins, which are natural extracts from chrysanthemums. Pyrethroids have been developed to be more stable (and thus more effective as insecticides) than the pyrethrins, which are particularly instable in light. Pyrethroids are frequently used as broad-spectrum insecticides. They have high insect toxicity, but lower mammalian toxicity than their organophosphate or carbamate counterparts. Pyrethroids are still limited in effectiveness due to their environmental lability, their high cost, and their potential for resistance development. 

Natural pyrethrum products (pyrethrins extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium). 

Erwinia chrysanthemi EC16 (ATCC 1162) originally from Chrysanthemum x morifoliyiin, provided purified enzymes, the genes for which were cloned and expressed in E. coli HBIOI. (18,19). 

Plants have provided several other important pesticides. The group of insecticides called pyrethrums was harvested and refined from chrysanthemums. The plant nux vomica contains strychnine, which was used to kill rodents. Rotenone, another important insecticide was extracted from the root of Denis eliptica. Plant extracts were useful, but difficult to purify and obtain in quantity. Significant increases in the use of pesticides occurred with advances in synthetic chemistry and our understanding of biology. 

The newest class of insecticide, pyrethroids, is loosely based upon the naturally occurring pyrethrum derived from chrysanthemum flowers. Synthetic pyrethroids were developed in the 1980s but the naturally occurring pyrethrum was first commercially used in the 1800s. The chemical structure of pyrethroids is quite different from organochlorines and organophosphates, but the primary site of... 

Paul Hermann Muller received a degree in chemistry and worked for the J. R. Geigy Corporation, which later became part of Novartis (McGrayne 2001). Geigy specialized in dyestuffs for woolens. Chemists at the company discovered a chlorinated hydrocarbon compound that protected woolens from clothes moths, but it was a stomach poison. Geigy then searched for other insecticides that killed other pests. Natural insecticides made from plants include pyrethrum from chrysanthemum, rotenone from a tropical... 

Pyrethrins are naturally occurring pesticides derived from chrysanthemum plants. They are active against many insects and mites. Over-the-counter liquid and gel preparations of pyrethrins with piperonyl butoxide are available for the treatment of pediculosis (piperonyl butoxide inhibits the hydrolytic enzymes that metabolize the pyrethrins in the arthropod). A synthetic pyre-throid, permethrin (Elimite), is available by prescription. A lower concentration of permethrin (Nix) is available without prescription. Pyrethrins and permethrin are quite safe. 

Protein biomolecules consisting of polypeptide chain with large molecular mass Protostar early stage in the formation of a star when gases and dust start to contract due to gravitational forces P-V Work work associated with the expansion or compression of a gas Pyrethroids synthetic forms of pyrethrins, insecticides based on extracts from chrysanthemums... 

Although the first survey listed 45 natural chlorinated sesquiterpene lactones, several such compounds were omitted in that coverage (1) and are described here. The novel sesquiterpene lactone chlorochrymorin (239) was isolated from Chrysanthemum morfolium (499), and the chlorohydrin graminichlorin (240) is found in Liatris graminifolia (500). The antibacterial AA-57 (241), which is related to pentalenolactone, is produced by a Streptomyces sp. (501). The plant Eupatorium chinense var. simplicifolium has yielded eupachifolin D (242) (502) (side-chain double bond stereochemistry revised (518)), and the new guaianolide andalucin (243) was characterized from Artemisia lanata (503). The previously known chlorohyssopifolins (1) have been studied for cytostatic activity, and the presence of one and even two chlorine atoms amplifies this activity (504). 

Osawa T, Suzuki A, Tamura S, Ohashi Y, Sasada Y (1973) Structure of Chlorochrymorin, a Novel Sesquiterpene Lactone from Chrysanthemum morifolium. Tetrahedron Lett 14 5135... 

Bicyclo[2,2,l]heptanes.—Nojiguki alcohol (167) has been isolated from Chrysanthemum japonense.261... 

Nicotine is an example of a natural insecticide that has been in use for many years. Pyrethrln, a crude mixture of natural pyrethroids, was used by Caucasian tribes as an insecticide before 1800. The extract of pyrethrum from chrysanthemum clnaerlaefolum contains pyrethrlns, clnerins and jasmolins. Although this product was a valuable insecticide when few effective insecticides were available, its use in agriculture has been limited by its photochemical instability. Replacement of such naturally occurring insecticides by compounds synthesized from petrochemicals was favoured by wartime conditions. 

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