Fatalities from exposure

Risk indices are usually single-number estimates, which may be used to compare one risk with another or used in an absolute sense compared to a specific target. For risks to employees the fatal accident rate (FAR) is a commonly apphed measure. The FAR is a singlenumber index, which is the expected number of fatalities from a specific event based on 10 exposure hours. For workers in a chemical plant, the FAR could be calculated as follows ... 

A Caution Hydrogen fluoride and fluorine are dangerous materials. Exposure to them will cause severe, painful, and perhaps fatal injury. Exposure may not be evident for several hours. The procedures described here pose the risk of exposure to hydrogen fluoride and to elemental fluorine and should only be carried out by, or under the direct supervision of, qualified professionals. Qualified first aid treatment and professional medical resources must be established prior to working in the area. Prompt treatment is necessary to reduce the severity of damage from exposure and should be sought immediately following exposure or suspected exposure. Material safety data sheets are available from HF and fluorine suppliers. Their recommendations should be followed scrupulously. 

Typically a BLEVE occurs after a metal container has been overheated above 538 °C (1,000 °F). The metal may not be able to withstand the internal stress and therefore failure occurs. The contained liquid space of the vessel normally acts as a heat absorber, so the wetted portions of the container are usually not at risk, only the surfaces of internal vapor spaces. Most BLEVEs occur when containers are less than 1/2 to 1/3 full of liquids. The liquid vaporization expansion energy is such that container pieces have been thrown as far as 0.8 km (1/2 mile) from the rupture and fatalities from such incidents have occurred up to 244 meters (800 ft.) away. Fireballs may occur at the time of rupture, that are several meters in diameter, resulting in intense heat exposure to nearby personnel. Fatalities due to burns from such incidents have occurred to personnel as much as 76 meters (250 Ft.) away from the point of rupture. 

Chemotherapy used to treat cancer is toxic by almost anyone s standards. How would it affect someone like Peggy, who experiences life-threatening reactions to even low-level chemical exposures There are no answers. Peggy believes chemotherapy or surgery could be fatal for her, because her lungs burn and airways can close even from exposure to fragrances and other ordinary products. She has chosen to treat her cancer with a non-chemical, non-invasive alternative program, and her trust in God. 

Carmichael WW, Azevedo SFMO, An JS, Molica RJR, Jochimsen EM, Lau S, Rinehart KL, Shaw GR, Eaglesham GK (2001) Human fatalities from cyanobacteria chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins. Environ Health Persp 109 663-668 Codd GA, Bell SG, Kaya K, Ward CJ, Beattie KA, Metcalf JS (1999) Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health. Eur J Phycol 34 405 115 Cronin G, Hay M (1996) Induction of seaweed chemical defenses by amphipod grazing. Ecology 77 2287-2301... 

Anaphylaxis is a severe systemic allergic reaction, which can be fatal. Frequently the first symptom is itchy hives (welts) within minutes of exposure. Swelling of the larynx, with constriction of the air passage and a rapid drop in blood pressure quickly follow. Treatment includes immediate removal from exposure, administration of epinephrine, and strict avoidance of reexposure. 

Figure 2-4 graphically depicts the information that currently exists on the health effects of 1,2-dibromoethane in humans and animals by various routes of exposure. The vast majority of literature reviewed concerning the health effects of 1,2-dibromoethane in humans described case reports and longer-term studies of pesticide workers and case reports of accidental or intentional ingestion of 1,2-dibromoethane. The predominant route of exposure in the occupational studies is belived to be inhalation, with dermal exposure also implied. In a case report of fatalities, dermal exposure was considered the primary route (Letz et al. 1984). The information on human exposure is limited in that the possibility of concurrent exposure to other pesticides or other toxic substances cannot be excluded, and the duration and level of exposure to 1,2-dibromoethane generally cannot be quantified from the information presented in these reports. 

Human fatalities from acute renal damage have occurred after exposure for 0.5-1 hour to concentrations of 1000-2000 ppm occasional sudden deaths have been due to ventricular fib-... 

In the past, concentrations of 40,000 ppm were used clinically to produce anesthesia. Sudden and unforeseen fatalities from ethyl chloride anesthesia have been reported. Concentrations of 2 0,000 ppm or above have reportedly caused increased respiratory rate, cardiac depression, dizziness, eye irritation, and abdominal cramps. Exposure to 19,000ppm resulted in mild analgesia after 12 minutes, and 13,000ppm caused slight symptoms of inebriation. ... 

Guinea pigs exposed to 40,000 ppm appeared uncoordinated in 3 minutes, had eye irritation, and were unable to stand after 40 minutes some animals died from exposure for 9 hours, but exposure for 4.5 hours was non-fatal histopathologic changes in the lungs, liver, and kidneys were observed in euthanized animals of the latter group. ... 

Concentrations of ethyl ether ranging from 100,000 to 150,000 are required for induction of human anesthesia however, exposure at this concentration may also produce fatalities from respiratory arrest. Maintenance of surgical anesthesia is achieved at... 

Death from pulmonary edema occurred within 2 hours in three of six workers splashed with 70% solution, despite prompt showering with water. The HF concentration in the breathing zone was estimated to be above 10,000 ppm. A chemist exposed to HF splashes on the face and upper extremities developed pulmonary edema 3 hours after exposure and died 10 hours later. Persistent respiratory symptoms, including hoarseness, coughing fits, and nosebleeds, but with normal pulmonary function, were observed in one subject who survived a massive exposure. Acute renal failure of uncertain cause has also been documented after an ultimately fatal inhalation exposure." ... 

Almost all reports of fatalities from malathion have involved ingestion The acute oral lethal dose is estimated to be somewhat below l.Og/kg. Nonlethal intoxication has occurred in agricultural workers but usually has been the result of gross exposures with concomitant skin absorption. 

Rabbits died from exposure to 10,000 ppm for 6 hours initial effects were weakness, ataxia, and muscular incoordination followed by convulsions. " The same concentration for 3 hours was not fatal. Autopsy of animals exposed to lethal concentrations showed focal necrosis in the liver and moderate kidney damage. Lower concentrations produced slight irritation of the respiratory tract, followed by mild narcosis, weakness, and salivation, but no evidence of eye irritation. 

In another pattern of sensitization response, a worker who has had only minimal upper respiratory symptoms or no apparent effects from several weeks of low-level exposure may suddenly develop an acute asthmatic reaction to the same or a slightly higher level. The asthmatic reaction may be severe, sometimes resulting in status asthmaticus, which may be fatal if exposure continues. ... 

Industrial exposure to tricbloronaphthalene (usually mixed with tetrachloronaphtha-lene) has been relatively free of untoward effects compared witb tbe more bigbly chlorinated naphthalenes. No fatal cases of liver injury have been reported, but one instance of toxic hepatitis supposedly resulted from exposure to 3mg/m Altbougb there are several reports of chloracne from exposure to tricbloronaphthalene, they do not stand up well to critical analysis. Experiments on human volunteers showed that the mist was entirely nonacneigenic as opposed to the penta- and hexachloro derivatives, which produce severe chloracne. ... 

In chronic benzene intoxication, mild poisoning produces headache, dizziness, nausea, stomach pain, anorexia, and hypothermia. In severe cases, pale skin, weakness, blurred vision, and dyspnea occur on exertion. Hemorrhagic tendencies include petechia, easy bruising, and bleeding gums. Bone marrow depression produces a decrease in circulating peripheral erythrocytes and leucocytes (101). Fatalities from chronic exposure show at autopsy severe bone marrow aplasia, and necrosis or fatty degeneration of the heart, fiver, and adrenals (125). 

Fatal poisoning has always resulted from exposure to relatively high concns of vapors (8600 to 60000 ppm). Locally, bromomethane is an extreme irritant to the skin and may produce severe burns... 

Death. No case studies of human fatalities have been reported following exposure to chlorobenzene by inhalation, ingestion, or dermal contact. Death has been reported in animals at high doses for brief periods of exposure. Rabbits died within 2 weeks after removal from exposure at approximately 537 ppm (Rozenbaum et al. 1947). The cause of death has been attributed to central nervous system depression resulting in respiratory failure. Animal data suggest that lethality may not be a concern for humans unless the exposure level is very high. 

Development of a comprehensive and risk-based hazardous waste classification system requires assumptions about the measure or measures of response (adverse health effects) from exposure to radionuclides and hazardous chemicals that should be used in classifying waste. Possible measures of response discussed in Section 3.2.3 include fatalities, incidence, or some combination of the two, such as total detriment (ICRP, 1991). The following sections discuss the measures of response from exposure to hazardous subtances that... 

Incidence. In the first option, the common measure of stochastic response from exposure to radionuclides and hazardous chemicals would be incidence, without any modifications to account for such factors as differences in lethality fractions for responses in different organs or tissues or expected years of life lost per fatality. Such modifications are intended to represent differences in the severity of different stochastic responses. 

Garry VF, Good PF, Manivel JC, et al. 1993. Investigation of a fatality from nonoccupational aluminum phosphide exposure Measurement of aluminum in tissue and body fluids as a marker of exposure. J Lab Clin Med 122(6) 739-747. 

Urticaria, commonly known as hives, is a type I allergic reaction that results very rapidly from exposure to a toxicant to which the subject has become sensitized. It is characterized by the release of histamine from a type of white blood cell. Histamine causes many of the symptoms of allergic reaction, including tissue edema. In addition to edema, erythema, and accompanying raised welts on skin, urticaria is accompanied by severe itching. In severe cases, such as happen in some people as the result of bee or wasp stings, urticaria can result in systemic anaphylaxis, a potentially fatal allergic reaction. 

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