Equipment, constructional materials

A number of elements are required to support a new or existing nuclear plant. Suppliers and fabricators of nuclear fuel and safety-related components are clearly essential, as are suppliers of balance-of-plant equipment, construction materials, electronics and instrumentation, and coundess other components. 

RCT are designed to successfully solve a whole number of tasks in nuclear power when testing fuel elements, in aviation and space industry when testing construction materials, nozzles and engine units, turbine blades and parts, in electromechanical industry-cables switching elements, electric motors in defense sphere- charges, equipment in prospecting for research of rock distribution and detection of precious stones in samples. 

Automotive heavy maintenance and yard material-handling equipment Construction expense ... 

Overseas Construction Costs Although Table 9-55 gives location factors for the construction of chemical plants of similar function in various countries at 1993 values, these may vaiy differentially over a period of time owing to local changes in labor costs and productivity. Hence, it is often necessaiy to estimate the various components of overseas construction costs separately. Equipment and material prices will depend on local labor costs and the availability of raw materials. If the basic materials have to be imported, costs in the source area become important and import duties and freight charges must be added. 

Selection of Equipment The principal factors which influence mixing-equipment choice are (1) the process requirements, (2) the flow properties of the process fluids, (3) equipment costs, and (4) construction materials required. 

Thus, unacceptable stresses can arise in rigid construction materials in apparatus, equipment, piping, etc. if subjected to large temperature fluctuations. For example, conventional glass is prone to failure due to thermal shock. 

In contrast, most equipment can safely tolerate higher degrees of heat density than those defined for personnel. However, if anything vulnerable to overheating problems is involved, such as low melting point construction materials (e.g., aluminum or plastic), heat-sensitive streams, flammable vapor spaces, or electrical equipment, then the effect of radiant heat on them may need to be evaluated. When this evaluation is required, the necessary heat balance is performed to determine the resulting surface temperature, for comparison with acceptable temperatures for the equipment. 

Ultrasonic techniques. Wall thickness can be measured to monitor the progress of general corrosion, cracks can be detected and hydrogen blisters identified. Certain construction materials such as cast iron cannot be examined by ultrasound. Skilled operators and specialist equipment is required. Plant can be examined in situ except when it is above 80°C. 

These properties, coupled with the metal s ability to promote bubble-type vapour formation on the surface when heating liquids, and dropwise condensation when condensing vapours, make the metal an ideal constructional material for heat-transfer equipment for use with strong acids. 

To assess the well construction materials compatibility versus the subsurface environment and the pesticide of interest, manufacturers can provide data about the various well construction materials or samples can be acquired for laboratory analysis. Also, QC samples of each material can be collected during installation and preserved for laboratory analysis for potential sample bias, if necessary. In addition to well construction materials, the potable water used to clean drilling equipment and to prepare the grout and hydrate bentonite should also be collected for laboratory analysis (see Section 3.2.6). 

Information on manufacturing processes, equipment parameters, materials of construction, costs and the physical properties of process materials are needed at all stages of design from the initial screening of possible processes, to the plant start-up and production. 

Thermoeconomics of the LHS system involves fixed capital investment, operational and maintenance cost, and exergy costs (Domanski and Fellah, 1998). Total fixed capital investment consists of (i) direct expenses that are equipment cost, materials, and labor, (ii) indirect project expenses that are freight, insurance, taxes, construction, overhead, (iii) contingency and contractor fee, and (iv) auxiliary facilities, such as site development, auxiliary buildings. 

When equipment uses materials of construction other than carbon steel, or operating temperatures are extreme, the capital cost needs to be adjusted accordingly. Whilst the equipment cost and its associated pipework will be changed, the other installation costs will be largely unchanged, whether the equipment is manufactured from carbon steel or exotic materials of construction. Thus, the application of the factors from Tables 2.2 to 2.6 should only be applied to the equipment and pipework ... 

Propagation Diminish Emergency material transfer Reduce inventories of flammable materials Equipment spacing and layout Nonflammable construction materials Installation of check and emergency shutoff valves... 

Before the HAZOP study is started, detailed information on the process must be available. This includes up-to-date process flow diagrams (PFDs), process and instrumentation diagrams (P IDs), detailed equipment specifications, materials of construction, and mass and energy balances. 

For facilities susceptible to the contamination of nitroglycerin liquids and vapors, basic construction materials of wood framing, reinforced concrete, fiberglass reinforced plastic, and sandwich panels were chosen for development of architectural details incorporating lead conductive floor lining, equipment doors, personnel escape chutes and doors, ceiling and wall interfaces, interior finishes, joint sealing, door and wall louvers, wall vents, wall penetrations, and fixed windows. 

Equipment should tolerate maloperation, poor installation or maintenance without failure. E.g. expansion loops in pipework are more tolerant to poor installation than bellows. The construction materials should be resistant to corrosion and physical conditions. For most applications metal is safer than glass or plastic. 

Corrosion is usually measured as corrosion rates mm/a. The material is selected so that the corrosion allowance is not exceeded during the life time of the equipment. However the corrosion rates are not always known during the predesign. Still a rough type of material of construction is often anticipated. Since the need of better material most often indicates more corrosive conditions, a classification based on type of construction material can be justified. 

The main business of most chemical companies is to manufacture products by means of controlled chemical reactions. The reactivity that makes chemicals useful can also make them hazardous. Chemical reactions are usually carried out without mishap, but sometimes they get out of control because of problems such as the wrong or contaminated raw material being used, changed operating conditions, unanticipated time delays, failed equipment, incompatible materials of construction, or loss of temperature control. Such mishaps can be worse if the chemistiy under both normal and abnormal conditions is not fully understood. Therefore, it is essential that chemical process designers and operators understand the nature of the reactive materials andchemistry involved and what it takes to control intended reactions and avoid unintended reactions throughout the entire life cycle of a process facility. 

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