Dual infection

There are dual infections where a disease is the result of a synergistic relationship between two microorganism species. Such relationships are both complex and more common than generally thought. A classic example of this is the human disease of diphtheria [6]. While the disease is caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the toxin produced by this bacterium that accounts for its pathogenicity is due to lysogenic conversion of the C. diphtheriae by a specific bacterio-... 

Maggio-Price, L., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H., Treuting, P, Iritani, B.M., Zeng, W., Nicks, A., Tsang, M., Shows, D., Morrissey, R, and Viney, J.L. (2005) Dual infection with Helicobacter bilis and Helicobacter hepaticus in p-glycoprotein-deficient mdrla/ mice results in colitis that progresses to dysplasia. Am. J. Pathol 166,1793-1806. 

The most elegant demonstration of the role of the specific receptor in limiting enterovirus infection is the report (IO) that phenotypically-mixed virions resulting from the dual infection of poliovirus type I and coxsackievirus B1, when subsequently added to cells resistant to poliovirus (by virtue of the absence of specific receptors) under conditions limiting specifically the replication of coxsackievirus RNA, yielded only poliovirus type I virions. Since only poliovirus RNA coated in coxsackievirus capsid material would be capable of initiating infection and productively multiplying, these results dramatically illustrate that the... 

Yi Y, Rana S, Turner JD, Gaddis N, Collman RG. CXCR-4 is expressed by primary macrophages and supports CCR5- independent infection by dual-tropic but not T-tropic isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1998 72(l) 772-777. 

Current recommendations for treating HIV infection advocate a minimum of three antiretroviral agents. The typical regimen consists of two NtRTIs and either a ritonavir-boosted PI or NNRTI. The dual NtRTI backbone should include tenofovir plus emtricitabine (coformulated as Truvada) or zidovudine plus lamivudine (coformulated as Combivir). Abacavir plus lamivudine is an alternative. Recommended initial NtRTIs include atazana-vir-ritonavir, lopinavir-ritonavir, or fosamprenavir-ritonavir. Efavirenz is the recommended NNRTI except for women who plan to become pregnant or who do not have adequate contraception. 

Flexner, C. (2000) Dual protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected patients pharmacologic rationale and clinical benefits. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 40, 649-674. 

There has been a great deal of interest in the use of colony-stimulating factors to treat MDS. GM-CSF and G-CSF, which have been used in clinical trials, offer a potential dual benefit. Firstly, they can affect neutrophil development in the bone marrow, and so can improve the neutropenia that is associated with these disorders. Secondly, they have the potential to increase or repair the function of circulating neutrophils. Indeed, there are some reports to indicate that these CSFs can result in enhanced function of peripheral blood neutrophils in these patients. Most patients show improvements in neutrophil counts after GM-CSF or G-CSF administration. In some cases, this has been associated with a decrease in the number of infective episodes. 

Olive, C., Schulze, K., Sun, H. K., Ebensen, T., Horvath, A., Toth, I., and Guzman, C. A. (2007). Enhanced protection against Streptococcus pyogenes infection by intranasal vaccination with a dual antigen component M protein/Sfbl lipid core peptide vaccine formulation. Vaccine 25, 1789-1797. 

Awasthi VD, Goins B, Klipper R, Phillips WT. Dual radiolabeled liposomes biodistribution studies and localization of focal sites of infection in rats. Nucl Med Biol 1998 25 155. 

Contamination of crops and products with ochratoxin A and related metabolites is not as directly associated with a particular fungus as is the case with the aflatoxins. Ochratoxin A is also likely to occur with other mycotoxins, such as citrinin and penicillic acid or patulin. In addition, it is not certain whether ochratoxin A contamination is only a storage problem or perhaps a dual field and storage problem. In cases such as coffee crops, the use of insecticides might help to control insect activity and consequently fungal infection. Coffee-berry borers are a major insect pest which can act as vectors to carry fungal spores, resulting in crop infection and ochratoxin accumulation. 

Another target defined for anionized albumins are cells of the immune system that have been infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Suc-HSA and Aco-HSA are potent inhibitors of HIV-1 repheation in vitro [48]. Thus, auionized albumins can be regarded as pharmacologicaUy active proteins, that can be used either as such, or as dual-active cou-... 

Healed duodenal ulcer, gastroesophageal reflux disease PO 15 mg/day Helicobacter pylori infection PO (Triple drug therapy) 30mgql2hfor 1 OH 4 days. PO (Dual drug therapy) 30 mg q8h for 14 days. 

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