Cost reduction factor

With bulk chemicals the feedstock costs are in general close to the theoretical minimum, due to the high selectivity achieved (90% and higher). The introduction of PI in this field can lead to a reduction in capital expenditure and of energy utilities by a factor 5 (38) a variable cost reduction factor of 1.4 is achievable. 

Journal bearings made of a modified APD material have substituted rolling bearings in friction joints of drying drum wringer rolls and other equipment exposed to hostile media at 60-90° C temperatures. The service life of APD-based bearings exceeds that of roller bearings 1.5 times with a cost reduction factor of two. 

The purpose of this article is to indicate and illustrate the very wide range of factors, apart from and beyond questions of underlying chemistry and chemical specificity, that determine or constrain the utility of various investigative efforts in catalyst research they also define the continuing and progressive contributions to the chemical industry which the catalyst chemist can make. The ultimate criteria are nearly always found in cost reduction and/or in product diversification and improvement. 

Figure 4 shows the impact of process intensification for this hypothetical case. With a temperature increase of only 41°C, the number of reactors for such comparatively big units is reduced from 20, hardly feasible in view of costs and process control, to four, feasible for the same reasons. Thus, the costs decrease by almost a factor of five (not exactly, since fixed costs have a small share). Another 21°C temperature increase halves the number of reactors again, and at 249°C, which is 149°C higher than the base temperature, an equivalent of 0.2 micro-structured reactors is needed. This means that practically one micro-structured reactor is taken and either reduced in plate number or in the overall dimensions. The costs of all microstructured reactors scales largely with their number only at very low numbers do fixed costs for microfabrication lead to a leveling off of the cost reduction. 

Section 5.2.2 include composites and metals. From a cost reduction point of view, it is estimated, according to the cost model, that the cost percentage of the plate in a stack can be reduced from -60 to 15-29% if the graphite plate were replaced by the composite plate or metal plate [15]. However, many uncertain factors are involved in the estimation. The progress and major challenges in development of bipolar plates fabricated by these candidate materials will be introduced in the following parf of this section. 

It is interesting to note that the development of plate materials from graphite to composite to metal is a process from application of the expansive pure graphite to less graphite in composites until no graphite is contained in the metals. In a certain sense, the development process may suggest cost reduction as a dominant factor in the development of plate materials and plates when the other requirements are maintained. 

R D on basic factors which contribute further improving performance and cost reduction... 

Currently, there is a need for high-throughput determination of nucleic acid sequences. At present, detection systems most commonly employ fluorescence-based methods. However, wide spread applications of such methods are limited by low speed, high cost, size, and number of incubations steps, among other factors. Application of electrochemical methods in affinity DNA sensors presents likely a promising alternative, allowing miniaturization and cost reduction, and potentially allowing application in point-of-care assays. 

Successful implementation of waste minimization methodologies depends on several factors, most notably obtaining the necessary funding. Waste reduction is generally accompanied by process efficiency improvements and cost reductions. Nevertheless, the company s capital resources may be tied up elsewhere. It is essential to know the level within an organization that has approval authority for capital projects, and to have a team that can present the financial, technical and environmental benefits in such a manner as to sell the project to management. 

The energy consumption has been reduced by 30% (reduction factor is 1.4). We have used this factor for global warming, acidification, and fossil fuel depletion. The thermal pollution from cooling water is reduced by a factor of 16 and the operational cost by a factor of 5 (39). 

Case SG Shell Global Solutions Natural Gas Dehydration (40). This case involves membrane separation for natural gas conditioning (dehydration). The mass of equipment is reduced by 70% (factor of 3 reduction) compared to the conventional process. From this we derived that the construction volume is reduced by the same factor, 3. The capital expenditure and operation cost reduction figures are given by Rijkens (40). 

Although RO water desalination is today considered as the most cost-effective solution [4], key factors for further improvements in membrane-based desalination systems are enhancement of water-recovery factor, cost reduction, improvement of water quality, new brine-disposal strategies. All these issues can be addressed by an integrated approach. 

Other cost reductions can come from optimizing an array of components and the overall operating system. Volume manufacturing and pricing are also important cost factors. 

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